THE 

CONSERVATION 
OF   TEXTILES 


LAUNDRYOWNERS 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMICAL  ENGINEERING 


THE 


CONSERVATION 
OF   TEXTILES 


.  . . BY  .  . . 
HARVEY  GERALD  ELLEDGE 

AND 

ALICE  LUCILLE  WAKEFIELD 

INDUSTRIAL  FELLOWS  OF 

The  MELLON  INSTITUTE  o/ INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PITTSBURGH 


PUBLISHED  BY 
LAUNDRYOWNERS  NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

LA  SALLE,  ILLINOIS 


Extra  copies  of  this  Book  may  be  had  for  $1.00  per  copy 

upon  application  to  W.  E.  FITCH, 

Manager  of  the  Laundryowners  National  Association, 

Drawer  No.  202,  La  Salle,  Illinois 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY 

LAUNDRYOWNERS  NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

LA  SALLE,  ILLINOIS 


Applications  for  permission  to  'use  any  of  the  material  in  this  Book  should  be 
addressed  to  W.  E.  Fitch,  Manager  of  thelLaundryowners  National  Association,  Drawer 
Ko.  202,  La  Salle,  Illinois. 


Mlrdoch-Kerr  Press 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


Contents 

PAGE 

Preface 7 

The  Development  of  the  Power  Laundry  Industry — Textile 
Work  of  the  Department  of  Chemical  Engineering — Causes  of 
Wear  in  Fabrics — Attitude  of  Laundry  Industry  to  Damages — 
Failure  of  Curtains — Impartiality  of  the  Department  of 
Chemical  Engineering. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Fibers 13 

History  of  Clothing — Skins — Rushes — Development  of 
Fabrics — Development  of  Spinning  —  Cotton  —  Mercerized 
Cotton — Schreiner  Finish  —  Linen— Wool — Silk  —  Artificial 
Silk  and  True  Silk— Test  for  Vegetable  Fibers— Differen- 
tiation of  Artificial  Silk — Test  for  Animal  Fibers — Use  of 
the  Microscope — Identification  of  Fibers  by  Physical  Appear- 
ances. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Weaves ^^ 

Plain — Fancy — Use  of  "Floats" — Advantages  and  Disadvan- 
tages Accruing  from  Use  of  Floats — Ideal  Fabric — Variations 
from  the  Ideal — Loose  Spinning — Long  Floats — Relation 
Between  Fiber  Lengths  and  Float  Lengths — Satin  Weave — 
Short  Fibers  and  Loose  Spinning — Pile  Fabrics — Weaving 
Flaws — Use  of  Poor  Materials — Influence  of  the  Finishing 
Process  on  Fabrics. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage 82 

Snagging — Knives — Razor  Blades — Bed  Springs — Mice — 
Poor  Tailoring. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Colored  Garments 90 

Types  of  Dyes — Classification  of  Dyes — Direct — Acid — 
Basic — Salt — Mordant — Vat — Sulfur — Aniline. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Corrosive  Materials 98 

Claim  Adjuster — Settlement  of  Claims — Identification  of 
Type  of  Damage — Chemical  Tendering — Tendering  by 
Launderer — Tendering  by  Wearer — Table  of  Materials  Cor- 
rosive to  Fabrics  (Table  I.)— Table  of  Corrosives  Encountered 
in  Various  Professions  and  Employments  (Table  II.) — Dis- 
cussion of  Tables — Tendering  by  Manufacturers. 


Contents — Cont. 

CHAPTER  VI.  PAGE 

The  Treatment  of  Stains 129 

Treatment  of  Stained  Fabrics — Need  of  Trained  Employee 
for  this  Work — Equipment — Table  of  Reagents  Used  in  Stain 
Removal — Oxalic  Acid — Acetic  Acid — Hydrochloric  Acid — 
Caustic  Soda — Ammonia — Javelle  Water — Hydrogen  Di- 
oxide —  Potassium  Permanganate  —  Sodium  Perborate  — 
Sodium  Bisulfite — Oleic  Acid — Sodium  Thiosulfate — Potas- 
sium Cyanide — Removal  of  Stains  (following  L  N.  A.  Pro- 
cedure Chart,  See  insert,  page  135). 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Conservation  of  Fabrics 142 

Length  of  Life  of  Fabrics — Hotel  Fabrics — Collars — Mechani- 
cal Effect  of  Power  Machinery — Effect  of  Standard  Wash- 
room Reagents — the  Model  Laundry  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Laundering — Work  of  the  Salvage  Branch  of  the  U.  S. 
Army — Agencies  of  Responsibility — Retail  Merchant — Dyes — 
Styles — Education  of  the  Public — Abuse  of  Fabrics  by  the 
User — Responsiblity  of  the  Laundry. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Pure  Fabric  Legislation  and  the  Department  of  Chemical 

Engineering,   J.   Clair    Stone 153 

The  Creation  of  the  Committee  on  Legislation  for  the  Correct 
Labeling  of  Fabrics — Purposes  of  the  Committee — Protec- 
tive Legislation — The  Interest  of  the  Laundry  Industry  in 
this  Endeavor — Educational  Responsibilities  of  the  Com- 
mittee— The  Study  of  Textile  Conservation — 1917  National 
Textile  Conference — Co-operation  of  Department  of  Chemical 
Engineering  with  the  Textile  Committee — The  Laundr>'- 
owner's  Knowledge  of  Textiles — Present  Activities  of  the 
Committee  on  Legislation  for  the  Correct  Labeling  of  Fab- 
rics— Assistance  Required  of  the  Individual  Laundryowners. 


Foreword 

THE   chapters   in    the    succeeding  pages  of  this    book 
present  the  results   of  five   years    of  painstaking  re- 
search into  a  subject  that  is  of  the  keenest    interest 
to  laundryowners. 

The  authors  of  this  book  have  not  only  handled  their 
subject  from  an  analytical  and  scientific  standpoint,  but 
they  have  succeeded  in  putting  it  together  in  a  truly 
readable  and  interesting  literary  style. 

The  subject  "The  Conservation  of  Textiles"  is  one 
with  which  every  laundryowner  should  be  familiar.  Our 
knowledge  of  textiles  has  been  more  of  an  intuitional 
nature  than  of  one  of  positive  understanding  of  their 
origin,  compositiop  and  peculiarities. 

A  positive  and  sympathetic  understanding  of  the 
goods  we  are  called  upon  to  renovate  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  ourselves  and  to  the  public. 

We  all  are  or  should  be  deeply  concerned  with  the 
"conservation  of  textiles."  Our  reputations  as  launderers 
are  at  stake — not  only  that  but  the  reputation  and  ad- 
vancement of  our  industry  are  greatly  influenced  by  the 
degree  of  accuracy  with  which  we  classify  the  goods  we 
are  to  launder,  and  by  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which 
we  prescribe  the  treatment  they  are  to  receive. 

The  Department  of  Chemical  Engineering,  the 
Director  and  Associate  Director  of  which  Department 
are  the  authors  of  this  treatise  on  textiles,  has  already 
given  to  the  members  of  this  Association  its  Standard 
Formulas  for  Washroom  Practice.     It  is  most  fitting  now 


that  we  should  be  told  of  the  nature  of  the  goods  to 
which  these  formulas  are  to  be  applied.  In  fact,  it  seems 
that  many  of  us  would  have  understood  the  formulas 
better  if  we  had  studied  the  "conservation  of  textiles" 
first. 

Science  is  not  something  to  be  afraid  of  or  ridiculed 
or  classed  as  "high-brow  stuff."  It  is  nothing  more  or 
less  than  "organized  knowledge  and  classified  common 
sense."  Through  its  use  and  application  to  social,  in- 
dustrial and  agricultural  problems,  our  greatest  progress 
as  a  nation  is  being  brought  about. 

And  so,  then,  let  us  take  this  little  book  at  even  more 
than  its  face  value.  It  will  help  us  to  know  more  about 
the  goods  we  are  handling.  It  will  familiarize  us  with 
certain  practices  on  the  part  of  certain  textile  manu- 
facturers, which  practices  are  detrimental  to  the  interests 
of  the  public  and  to  our  interests  and  cause  many  of  the 
claims  that  are  presented  to  us  for  payment  through 
failure  of  some  of  these  goods. 

Let  us  learn  how  to  use  this  book  intelligently  in  the 
adjustment  of  claims.  Let  us  read  it  thoroughly  and 
preserve  it  carefully,  remembering  that  there  is  no  similar 
book  in  the  world,  and  that,  while  it  is  not  a  large  book,  its 
preparation  represents  extensive  study  on  the  part  of  its 
authors;  and  last,  but  not  least,  let  us  remember  that  the 
book  comes  to  you  as  an  enduring  testimonial  to  the 
value  of  organized  effort  through  our  membership  in  the 
Laundryowners  National  Association. 

W.  E.  Fitch. 
La  Salle,  Illinois. 


Preface 

THE  development  of  the  power  laundry  industry  has 
been,  until  comparatively  recent  times,  coincident  with 

the  popularity  of  the  starched,  detachable  collar.  The 
time  is  well  within  the  memory  of  many  men,  today 
actively  engaged  in  the  laundry  business,  when  white, 
stiff-bosomed  shirts,  white  cuffs  and  collars  constituted 
the  chief  articles  laundered.  Conditions  have  been,  and 
still  are,  rapidly  changing.  In  the  early  periods  of  the 
development  of  the  industry  the  laundry  manager  was 
required  to  know  the  characteristics  of  few  fabrics;  one 
grade  of  cotton  and  one  grade  of  linen,  both  of  plain 
weave,  were  encountered.  Dyes  did  not  concern  him. 
Later,  he  was  required  to  wash  and  iron  colored  shirts 
and  collars;  still  later  silk  and  fine  flannels.  Today,  with 
the  variety  of  styles  in  men's  shirts  and  with  the  laundry 
catering  to  family  service,  a  knowledge  of  textiles  and 
dyes  is  needed  by  everyone  interested  in  good  laundering. 
Some  suggestions  which  will  prove  helpful  in  securing  this 
desired  knowledge  appear  in  the  following  pages. 

The  phase  of  the  activities  of  the  Department  of 
Chemical  Engineering  of  the  Laundryowners  National 
Association  Service  Bureau  that  has  attracted  the  greatest 
interest  during  the  period  of  the  last  year  or  so,  has  been 
in  connection  with  textile  articles  for  which  claims  for 
damage  have  been  made  against  the  laundry  for  one  cause 
or  another.  Some  of  these  exhibits  show  the  failure  of 
the  fabric  in  the  typical  manner  of  the  natural  wearing 
function. 

The  fact  that  textiles  are  perishable  cannot  be  too 
strongly   impressed   on    the   minds  of   the   patron   of   the 


The  Conserz'ation  of  Textiles 

laundry,  the  management  of  laundries,  and  the  owners 
of  laundries.  It  is  true  that  under  some  circumstances 
cloth  may  be  and  has  been  preserved  through  long  periods 
of  time.  Such  incidents,  however,  are  rather  the  excep- 
tions that  prove  the  rule.  Textile  fabrics  wear  out. 
Sunlight,  some  dyeing  materials,  water  and  friction  are 
their  natural  enemies.  In  addition  to  these  natural 
enemies,  there  are  incidental  enemies  which  are  acquired 
by  accident  or  rather  by  uncommon  incident  during  the 
designated  use  of  the  fabric.  Medicines,  household  toilet 
articles  and  cosmetics,  and  industrial  materials  are  acci- 
dentally acquired  during  the  ordinary  use  of  the  cloth, 
which,  according  to  fairly  well  understood  chemical  laws, 
cause  weakening  of  the  individual  fibres  and  a  consequent 
shortening  of  the  serviceable  life  of  the  fabric. 

Through  correspondence  with  various  members  of 
the  Association  and  other  communications  from  this 
Department,  discussion  has  been  presented  on  many 
specific  examples  of  the  type  of  cases  mentioned  above. 
The  general  interest  which  has  been  attracted  by  the 
diagnosis  of  the  cause  and  responsibility  for  the  condition 
exhibited  by  the  many  cases  of  textile  failures  and  the 
special  interest  of  some  of  the  members  of  the  Association 
have  prompted  the  preparation  of  this  book  on  the  subject 
of  textile  defects  and  failures.* 

The  attitude  of  mind  entertained  by  the  management 
and  personnel  of  the  laundry  industry  toward  these 
problems  is  reflected  to  the  patronage  of  the  industry. 
Recognition  of  the  truth  of  this  proposition  constitutes 
the  actuating  motive  for  the  elimination  of  words  and 
expressions  of  objectionable  connotation  from  the  trade 
language.  It  likewise  constitutes  the  incentive  toward 
research  on  problems  that  are  only  qualitatively  under- 
stood. Every  thoughtful  person  knows  that  the  useful 
period  of  service   to  be   had   from   any   textile   article   is 

♦Some  of  the  material  pres;nted  herein  was  induded  in  a  paper  on  this  same  sub- 
ject delivered  before  the  Chicago  Convention  and  published  in  the  1918  "L.  N.  A.  Year 
Book." 


Preface 

limited.  Just  how  long  a  period  constitutes  a  reasonable 
expectancy  for  various  grades  of  materials  is  an  un- 
answered question.  This  Department  is  making  an 
effort  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  industry  some  definite 
knowledge  concerning  the  wearing  qualities  of  cloth. 
Even  a  casual  inspection  of  any  back-yard  on  washday 
noon  affords  a  clear  demonstration  of  the  qualitative 
facts.  Do  clothes  wear  out,  is  not  so  much  the  question 
as  is,  how  rapidly  should  fabrics  of  a  certain  quality  wear 
out  under  ideal  conditions  of  wearing  and  washing? 

The  experience  of  the  housewife  who  does  not  send  any 
of  her  work  to  the  power  laundry  has  taught  her  that  lace 
curtains  fail  more  quickly  when  the  window-shades  are 
left  up,  exposing  the  curtains  to  sunlight.  She  has  also 
observed  that  the  line  of  failure  is  determined  by  the 
position  of  the  window-shades  and  she  is  therefore  very 
apt  to  keep  the  shades  down  most  of  the  time  in  order  to 
protect  her  lace  curtains.  If,  however,  she  is  a  patron  of 
a  power  laundry,  she  is  inclined  to  forget  about  the  effect 
of  sunlight  on  fabrics  and,  in  case  the  curtain  has  failed, 
she  is  inclined — not  always  with  intentional  dishonesty, 
but  through  prejudice  against  power  laundries — to  want 
an  adjustment  with  the  laundry  for  alleged  damage  done 
the  fabric  in  washing.  The  experiments  conducted  by 
the  Department  have  shown  just  how  much  tendering  a 
certain  amount  of  exposure  to  summer  sunlight  does  to  a 
fabric  in  a  certain  length  of  time.  An  interesting  contri- 
bution to  the  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  sunlight  is  had 
from  the  experience  of  the  British  Army  with  airplane  fabrics 
when  exposed  to  the  tropical  sun.*  It  is  a  part  of  the 
favorable  publicity  campaign  for  the  laundry  industry  to 
make  the  people  engaged  therein  understand  more  thor- 
oughly the  facts.  Knowledge  of  the  truth  is  good  for  all 
concerned  and  especially  will  a  correct  understanding  of 
textile  knowledge  be  beneficial  to  the  salesmen  and  pro- 
ducers of  laundry  service. 

♦Charles  Doree  and  Joseph  W.  W.  Dyer,  Journal   of  the  Society  of  Dyers  and 
Colour ists,  January,  1919. 


Tlic  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Successful  salesmen  usually  know  something  concern- 
ing the  production  of  their  commodity.  It  is  the  practice 
of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  to  give  their  sales- 
men a  brief  course  of  instruction  in  the  chemistry  and 
technology  of  steel.  Progressive  automobile  distributors 
make  it  a  practice  to  send  their  salesmen  to  the  factories 
to  learn  something  of  the  construction  of  the  machine 
they  have  to  sell.  It  was  with  the  idea  of  furnishing  some 
of  the  information  suggested  above,  and,  if  possible,  of 
providing  a  stimulus  to  careful  study  of  the  production 
and  sale  of  laundry  service,  that  the  writing  of  this  book 
was  undertaken.  If  the  purpose  is  accomplished  in  the 
broader  sense,  it  will  be  done  through  the  sympathetic  co- 
operation of  its  readers. 

The  readers  that  the  authors  have  had  in  mind  during 
the  preparation  of  the  text  are  first  of  all  the  members  of 
the  Laundryowners  National  Association.  In  addition  to 
these,  it  has  been  the  aim  to  interest  the  foremen  of  the 
washrooms  and  other  departments  of  the  laundry  plant 
organization  and  especially  those  persons  who  come  in 
contact  with  the  customers,  the  salesmen  and  claim 
adjusters. 

In  the  accumulation  of  the  information  which  the 
authors  have  endeavored  to  present,  they  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  most  progressive  men  of  the  industry. 
This  progressiveness  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  they 
have  taken  the  time  and  trouble  to  file  their  data  with 
the  Department  of  Chemical  Engineering,  where  it  is 
available  to  every  member  of  the  Association.  In 
view  of  this  fact,  no  feeling  of  self-complacency  should 
be  inspired  in  the  minds  of  the  thoughtful  men  of 
the  laundry  industiy  to  know  that,  of  the  exhibits  submitted 
to  the  authors'  Department,  less  than  five  per  cent,  have 
represented  cases  wherein  the  laundry  has  been  at  fault. 


10 


Preface 

It  should  be  pointed  out  in  this  connection  that  the  industry 
is  being  watched,  not  only  by  the  patrons  but  also  by  the 
textile  manufacturers,  the  fabricators  of  garments  and 
some  of  the  larger  dealers  in  fabrics.  Many  of  these 
maintain  their  own  research  departments.  Through  these 
agencies  the  L.  N.  A.  ofificials,  and  this  Department  in 
particular,  are  learning  of  undeniable  instances  of  the 
shortcomings  of  the  industry.  The  most  flagrant  cases 
of  the  violation  of  the  rules  of  good  laundry  practice  are 
from  the  less  progressive  plants  and  from  those  outside  the 
National  Association.  These  conditions  should  stimulate 
the  management  of  the  better  plants  to  more  consistent 
consideration  of  helpful  advice,  not  only  in  the  application 
of  it  to  their  own  work,  but  also  in  an  endeavor  to  interest 
the  less  progressive.  It  is  quite  obvious,  as  has 
been  called  to  the  attention  of  all  so  many  times,  that 
the  good  laundry  suffers  the  bad  effect  caused  by  the 
poor  quality  of  service  rendered  by  the  nonprogressive. 

In  the  analyses  of  textile  exhibits  this  Department 
has  always  maintained  an  impartial  stand,  considering 
only  such  evidence  as  would  be  acceptable  in  a  court  of  law. 
No  attempt  has  been  made  to  shield  the  laundryowner 
when  the  evidence  submitted  showed  that  he  had  been 
at  fault.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  evidence  indicated 
the  fault  of  the  fabric  or  abuse  of  the  fabric  by  the  user, 
it  has  been  the  pleasure  of  the  Department  to  help  the 
laundryowner  to  convince  the  patron  of  the  facts  and 
thereby  ultimately  to  increase  the  store  of  good  will 
toward  the  industry. 

Some  of  the  facts  presented  in  the  first  few  chapters 
may  appear  to  the  busy  launderer  to  be  of  academic 
rather  than  of  practical  interest.  However,  these  par- 
ticulars  are    furnished    in   view   of   the   conviction   enter- 


11 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

tained  by  the  authors  that  the  information  contained 
therein  constitutes  a  helpful  background  for  the  appli- 
cation of  the  facts  brought  out  in  the  technical  portion 
of  the  book. 

Harvey  Gerald  Elledge, 
Alice  Lucille  Wakefield. 

Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research, 
University  of  Pittsburgh, 
September,  1920. 


12 


CHAPTER  I. 
Fibers 

A  SHORT  review  of  the  history  of  clothing  will  not  be 
wholly  out  of  place  here.  The  records  obtained  by 
archeologists  date  back  as  far  as  2600  B.C.  and  show  the 
arts  of  spinning  and  weaving  to  be  in  a  late  stage  of  de- 
velopment at  this  time.  Beyond  this  date  nothing  definite 
is  known  because  no  records  have  been  found;  in  fact,  no 
records  are  expected  of  the  very  earliest  stages  since  these 
arts  appeared  long  before  man  began  to  express  himself 
by  means  of  writing. 

However,  from  our  present  knowledge  of  man  and 
the  progress  of  his  ideas  and  intellect  from  infancy  to 
manhood,  it  has  been  possible  to  imagine  the  first  steps 
taken  by  primitive  man  in  the  evolution  of  the  art  of 
cloth  manufacture.  When  the  first  desire  or  need  for 
body  covering  arose,  our  ancestors  took  what  lay  nearest 
at  hand  and  clothed  themselves  with  the  robes  which 
nature  had  furnished  their  less  highly  endowed  brothers, 
the  four-footed,  fur-bearing  animals.  To  do  this,  imple- 
ments for  obtaining  the  skins  were  necessary,  and  the 
cleverness  displayed  in  their  preparation  soon  found 
expression  in  another  way.  Rushes  and  fibrous  grasses 
were  plaited  or  woven  into  mats  that  were  found  to  be 
much  lighter  and  more  suitable  for  purposes  of  clothing 
in  certain  climates  and  seasons  than  were  the  animal  skins. 

Continued  use  of  the  grasses  demonstrated  that  an 
exceedingly  wide  field  of  application  of  heretofore  useless 
materials  had  been  opened  to  ingenious  minds.  Experience 
proved   that   for  purposes  of  covering  or  decorating  the 

13 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

body  some  plants  were  more  desirable  than  others.  The 
desirable  features  of  these  plants  were  found  to  be  confined 
to  one  section  of  the  stalk,  the  section  lying  between  the 
bark  and  the  woody  portion ;  these  features  were  toughness, 
pliability  and  greater  ease  of  bleaching.  Primitive  man 
was  even  more  prone  to  personal  decoration  than  civilized 
man  and  early  realized  that  white  cloth  gave  him  clearer 
and  more  brilliant  colors  than  gray  or  cream  cloth  did. 
The  fibers  that  resulted  from  the  manipulation  of  rushes 
and  reeds  by  the  ancients  are  the  linen  fibers  of  today,  and 
by  virtue  of  their  descent  from  reed  weaving,  and  the 
fact  that  reed  weaving  goes  back  beyond  any  other  type  of 
weaving,  linen  fibers  may  be  called  the  oldest  of  the 
textile  fibers. 

Long  after  grass  fibers  were  first  used,  but  before  their 
use  had  reached  any  great  degree  of  perfection,  the  pos- 
session of  herds  had  brought  a  knowledge  of  wool.  Wool 
originally  did  duty  as  a  body  covering  in  the  natural  form 
of  an  undipped  skin,  and  the  real  value  of  wool  fibers 
became  apparent  only  after  the  discovery  was  made  (by 
accident  rather  than  by  intent)  that  by  simultaneously 
pulling  and  twisting  the  clipped  wool  a  long  continuous 
strand  could  be  obtained.  This  process  of  pulling  and 
twisting  (later  called  spinning)  was  quickly  applied  to 
other  fibers,  and,  by  means  of  it,  many  fibers,  hitherto 
useless  for  weaving,  by  reason  of  their  extreme  shortness, 
were  added  to  the  list  of  useful  natural  products.  Cotton 
was  the  most  important  of  these  later  additions,  but,  like 
silk,  was  not  used  extensively  for  a  long  period  and  was 
regarded  as  a  rare  luxury.  Today,  however,  the  relative 
economic  values  have  changed  so  that  cotton  heads  the 
list  as  the  one  fiber  used  most  universally  and  in  largest 
quantity,  while  linen,  wool  and  silk  take  their  places  in  the 
order  named. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  four  fibers,  known 
now  for  ages,  still  remain  the  best  and  most  useful  aids  to 

14 


Fibers 

man's  physical  comfort.  They  are  also  the  ones  in  which 
the  laundry  industry  is  most  interested  and  for  that  reason 
we  must  know  them  so  well  that  we  will  recognize  them 
wherever  we  meet  them.  They  are  grouped  as  vegetable 
fibers  (cotton  and  linen)  and  animal  fibers  (wool  and 
silk),  on  account  of  the  sources  from  which  they  are 
derived.  The  vegetable  fibers  are  further  differentiated 
as  seed  and  bast  fibers;  i.  e.,  fibers  from  the  seed  pod  and 
fibers  from  that  portion  of  the  stalk  known  as  the  bast 
region,  lying  between  the  outer  bark  and  the  inner  woody 
portion. 

Cotton. — This  fiber  (which  is  useful  only  when  ripe) 
belongs  to  the  class  of  seed  fibers  and  is  disclosed  in  the 
ripe  burst  seed  pod  as  numerous  white  hairs  or  fibers  at- 
tached to  the  seeds.  Before  spinning,  these  fibers  must  be 
removed  from  the  seed  and,  previous  to  the  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney,  this  was  done  by  hand. 
Microscopic  examination  shows  the  individual  fiber  to  be 
a  long,  slender,  flat  tube,  spirally  twisted  about  its  axis. 
Figure  1  is  a  photomicrograph  (a  photograph  taken 
through  a  high  power  microscope)  of  cotton  showing  the 
details  of  its  structure.  One  end  will  be  found  closed  and 
pointed;  this  is  the  loose  end  of  the  fiber  as  it  grew  within 
the  seed  pod.  The  other  end  will  be«found  blunt  and  ragged 
where  it  has  been  torn  from  the  seed.  The  fibers  vary  con- 
siderably both  in  length  and  width,  the  longer  ones  being 
best  suited  for  spinning  and  weaving  because  when  spun 
greater  intertwining  of  the  individual  fibers  occurs, 
resulting  in  a  yarn  of  greater  strength  than  that  spun 
from  shorter  fibers.  Actual  measurements  show  the 
variation  in  length  of  the  fibers  to  be,  on  the  average, 
from  eight-tenths  of  an  inch  to  one  and  eight-tenths 
inches,  although  some  fibers  come  as  short  as  one-half 
inch.  These  extremely  short  fibers  are  usually  combined 
with  longer  fibers  to  insure  for  the  finished  yarn  a  reason- 

15 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  1. — Cotton,*  approximately,  x  300  diameters.  The  appear- 
ance of  cotton  fibers,  which  is  said  to  be  like  a  "twisted  ribbon,"  is 
shown  very  clearly  in  this  photomicrograph.  The  middle  fiber  is  an 
especially  good  illustration  of  this  description,  although  the  other  two 
fibers  are  of  value  as  demonstrating  the  fact  that  all  fibers  do  not  twist 
to  the  same  degree. 

♦Copied  from  the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica." 


i6 


Fibers 


Fig.  2. — Cotton,  Mercerized  Under  Tension,*  approximately, 
X  300  diameters.  By  treatment  with  hot  caustic  soda  solution  while 
under  tension,  cotton  fibers  are  changed  into  untwisted  cylinders  that 
reflect  the  light  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  untreated  fibers  do  and, 
consequently,  possess  a  higher  gloss. 

♦Copied  from  "A  Manual  of  Dyeing,"  by  Knecht,  Rawson  and  Loewenthal. 


17 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

able  tensile  strength.  Such  is  not  always  the  case,  how- 
ever, and  many  damages  exhibited  by  fabrics  submitted 
to  the  Laundryowners  National  Association's  Department 
of  Chemical  Engineering  for  examination  are  the  direct 
result  of  the  use  of  these  short  fibers  alone,  without  the 
reinforcement  of  a  percentage  of  longer  fibers. 

Mercerized  Cotton. — A  variation  of  the  natural  cotton 
is  mercerized  cotton.  The  difference  between  the  two  is 
physical  rather  than  chemical,  although  it  is  brought 
about  through  the  action  of  caustic  soda.  Mercerization 
causes  the  fiber  to  become  transparent  and  to  lose  its  flat 
spiral  form  to  become  a  nearly  straight  cylinder  having 
an  increased  power  of  light  reflection  and  consequently 
a  higher  gloss.  This  change  in  form  is  illustrated  by 
Figure  2.  The  mercerized  fiber  is  even  stronger  than  the 
raw  fiber  when  the  conditions  of  mercerization  have  been 
carefully  guarded  and  overtreatment  avoided.  The  only 
part  of  the  change  that  is  apparent  to  the  eye,  unaided 
by  a  magnifying  instrument,  is  the  increased  gloss. 

Schreiner  Finish  for  Cotton. — A  high  luster,  simi- 
lar to  that  appearing  on  mercerized  cotton,  can  be  given 
to  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  by  subjecting  it  to  a  process 
called  calendering.  This  process  consists  of  passing  the 
cloth  between  rollers  under  heavy  pressure.  One  of  the 
rolls  is  engraved  with  obliquely  set  lines,  ruled  fiom  125 
to  600  to  the  inch;  these  lines  produce  a  great  number  of 
parallel,  flat  surfaces  on  the  cloth,  which  cause  it  to  acquire 
a  high  luster.  If  the  rollers  are  heated  during  the  process, 
a  finish  is  produced  that  closely  resembles  mercerized  cot- 
ton, and  is  quite  permanent.  This  finish,  however,  is  lost 
to  a  large  degree  on  washing. 

Linen. — Linen  is  a  representative  of  the  bast  fibers 
and  is  obtained  by  fermentation  of  the  whole  flax  plant. 
This  process  prepares  those  parts  of  the  stalk  that  are 
undesirable  as  textile  fibers  so  that  further  treatment  by 

i8 


Fibers 


Fig.  3. — Linen,*  approximately,  x  210  diameters.  The  jointed 
structure  that  suggests  the  description  of  "bamboo-like"  is  (juite 
ev'ident  in  the  above  photomicrograph. 

♦Copied  from  "A  Manual  of  Modern  .'^team  Laundry  Work,"  by  E.  Clayton. 


19 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  4. — Wool,*  approximately,  x  210  diameters.  The  over- 
lapping scales  that  characterize  the  wool  fiber  are  clearly  defined  in 
this  photomicrograph.  This  feature  is  not  so  apparent  on  used  wool 
as  on  the  virgin  wool. 

*Copied  from  "A  Manual  of  Modern  Steam  Laundry  Work,"  by  E.  Clayton. 


20 


Fibers 

drying  and  rolling  removes  them,  leaving  the  long  tough 
fibers  to  be  used  for  spinning.  When  examined  micro- 
scopically (see  Fig.  3),  a  linen  fiber  presents  a  more  or 
less  bamboo-like  structure,  caused  by  the  occurrence  of 
several  cells  in  sequence,  with  nodes  or  knots  at  irregular 
intervals  where  two  cells  are  joined  at  the  ends.  An 
individual  cell  measures  in  length  from  twenty  to  forty 
millimeters  (7/lOOths  to  15  lOOths  of  an  inch);  conse- 
quently the  long  fibers  of  combed  flax  linen  consist  of 
a  large  number  of  cells  attached  end  to  end.  These  fibers, 
by  virtue  of  their  greater  length,  furnish  a  much  stronger 
yarn  than  does  cotton. 

Wool. — Wool  and  silk,  though  grouped  together  as 
animal  fibers,  are  produced  in  entirely  different  ways. 
The  term  wool  is  usually  taken  to  mean  the  hair  of  the 
sheep,  although  the  hair  of  certain  goats  (Cashmere, 
Mohair,  etc.)  and  of  the  camel  are  classed  under  the  same 
name.  The  kind  of  animal  from  which  it  is  obtained  and 
the  location  on  the  body  determine  the  quality  character- 
istics of  the  wool,  which  may  be  short  or  long,  coarse  or 
fine,  dull  or  lustrous.  A  long  stapled  wool  fiber  is  one 
that  measures  over  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  and 
its  diameter  is  usually  proportional  to  its  length.  Long 
stapled  wool  is  generally  combed  and  spun  into  worsted 
yarn  and  used  for  the  best  qualities  of  coatings,  dress 
goods,  etc.,  while  the  short  fibers  are  carded  and  spun  into 
woolen  yarn,  which  is  subjected  to  a  fulling  process  subse- 
quent to  being  woven  into  fabrics,  in  order  to  impart 
thicker  and  fuller  feel  to  the  fabric. 

A  close  microscopical  examination  of  wool  reveals  a 
cylindrical  fiber  covered  with  flattened,  horny  scales, 
which  are  funnel-like  and  which  overlap  each  other  in  the 
manner  of  fish  scales  (see  Fig.  4).  The  dimensions,  uni- 
formity and  compactness  of  these  scales  are  generally 
conceded  to  determine  the  luster  and  strength  of  the  wool. 

21 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Wool  differs  from  the  vegetable  fibers  in  several 
important  respects.  It  possesses  greater  elasticity  and 
strength  and  is  more  lustrous;  it  is  curly  and  has  the 
property  of  becoming  felted  under  certain  conditions, 
which  are  outlined  in  the  L.  N.  A.  charts  of  Standard 
Procedure  for  Washroom  Practice  as  including  the  use 
of  too  low  a  bath  with  too  little  soap.  This  property, 
while  being  useful  in  certain  ways,  is  a  nuisance  in  others, 
and  it  is  well  for  launderers  to  keep  this  fact  in  mind  when 
handling  woolen  articles.  The  exact  physical  change  that 
takes  place  during  the  process  of  felting  is  still  under 
discussion,  but  experiments  carried  out  by  the  Department 
of  Chemical  Engineering  have  proved  that  it  is  the  result 
of  hard  pounding  in  the  wheel  rather  than  of  changes  in 
temperature,  which  was  first  given  as  the  cause  of  the 
phenomenon  and  was  said  to  cause  contraction  of  the 
fiber  and  an  interlocking  of  the  scales.  The  observation 
made  by  this  Department  upon  the  cause  of  felting  is 
substantiated  by  the  research  findings  of  the  United 
States  Government  workers  on  this  problem.* 

Silk. — Silk  is  a  substance  secreted  by  several  species 
of  caterpillar  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  cocoon  in  which 
the  change  from  the  caterpillar  stage  to  the  moth  stage  of 
existence  occurs.  It  is  produced  by  two  glands,  situated 
one  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  is  carried  by  ducts  to  the 
head  of  the  caterpillar  where  the  spinneret  is  located. 
Here  on  coming  in  contact  with  the  air  the  two  gelatinous 
streams  solidify  and  are  cemeted  together  by  another 
secretion  which  is  produced  by  glands  located  near  the 
spinneret.  While  all  caterpillars  spin  cocoons  in  this 
manner,  the  secretions  of  only  a  few  species  form  strands 
of  sufficient  strength  to  make  them  of  value  as  textile 
fibers.  When  recovering  these  fibers  for  spinning,  the 
cocoons  are  placed  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  60°C.  to 


*A  full  report  of  this  work  is  to  be  found  in  the  laundry  trade  journals  for  the  early 
part  of  1919. 

22 


Fibers 


Fig.  5. — Raw  Silk,*  approximately,  x  150  diameters.  The  above 
photomicrograph  shows  the  silk  fiber  as  it  is  obtained  from  the  cocoon, 
before  the  gum  is  removed  by  boiling.  Each  strand  is  really  two 
fibers,  the  gum  serving  to  cover  this  double  nature. 


♦Copied  from  "A  Manual  of  Dyeing,"  by  Knecht,  Rawson  and  Loewenthal. 


23 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  6. — "Boiled-off"  Silk,*  approximately,  x  150  diameters. 
The  true  silk  fiber  as  it  appears  after  the  gum  has  been  removed.  The 
natural  high  gloss  that  is  developed  or  uncovered  by  this  process  is  not 
as  evident  in  a  photograph  as  in  the  fibers  themselves. 

♦Copied  from  "A  Manual  of  Dyeing,"  by  Knecht,  Rawson  and^Loewenthal. 


24 


Fibers 

soften  the  cement  which  binds  the  two  fibers  together. 
When  this  softening  has  taken  place  the  fibers  are  reeled 
onto  spools,  several  strands  being  reeled  together  to  form 
a  thread. 

Raw  silk  (unreeled  silk  or  the  cocoon  proper)  is  of  a 
creamy  or  yellowish  color  and  has  very  little  luster.  When 
examined  under  the  microscope  it  appears  as  two  straight, 
transparent  fibers,  absolutely  lacking  in  cellular  structure, 
cemented  together  along  their  whole  length  (Fig.  5). 
When  boiled  with  soap  solution,  theouter  layer  of  cementis 
removed,  and  the  true  luster  of  the  fiber  is  revealed  (Fig.  6). 
A  silk  fiber  varies  from  500  to  1500  yards  in  length  and  in 
diameter  from  0.01  to  0.02  millimeters  (4/1000  to  8/1000 
inch).  Besides  the  advantage  afforded  by  such  ex- 
ceptional length,  silk  is  extremely  elastic  and  is  the  strongest 
and  most  lustrous  of  the  natural  fibers.  The  best  silk  is 
produced  by  silk-worms  reared  under  artificial  environ- 
ment and  carefully  cultivated,  and  is  finer,  whiter  and 
more  lustrous  than  the  so-called  "wild"  silks  obtained 
from  the  cocoons  of  uncultivated  worms. 

Artificial  Silk. — The  demand  for  silk  has  reached  such 
proportions  that  efforts  to  supply  its  beauty  at  a  popular 
price  have  led  to  the  manufacture  of  artificial  silks.  The 
most_important  varieties  of  these  fibers  are  prepared  by 
the  same  fundamental  formula,  which  calls  for  a  solution 
of  some  chemical  product  of  cellulose  in  an  appropriate 
liquid.  Of  the  two  types  of  artificial  silk  on  the  market, 
the  better  known  is  made  from  cellulose  hydrate,  more 
commonly  called  viscose.  The  other  type  is  manufactured 
from  cellulose  acetate,  and  sold  under  the  trade-name  of 
"Lustron."  Viscose  and  cellulose  acetate  "silks"  differ 
materially  chemically  but  the  physical  differences  are 
not  marked.  However,  the  identification  of  the  type  to 
which  an  artificial  silk  belongs  may  be  readily  accom- 
plished in  the  laboratory. 

25 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

The  process  of  manufacture  of  artificial  silk  is  briefly 
as  follows:  A  solution  of  v^iscose  (or  of  cellulose  acetate) 
in  a  suitable  solvent  and  of  desired  concentration  is  ex- 
truded by  appropriate  mechanical  devices  in  such  a  way  as 
to  convert  the  viscous  solution  into  filament  form.  These 
filaments  or  threads  are  placed  into  some  medium  that 
causes  immediate  coagulation  or  hardening,  and  are 
reeled  from  this  coagulating  material  and  prepared  for 
weaving  in  the  same  manner  as  silk,  per  se.  None  of  the 
varieties  of  cellulose  silk  possesses  the  strength  and  elasticity 
of  real  silk  nor  its  resistance  to  the  process  of  washing; 
they  all  have  to  be  handled  with  considerable  care  and 
even  with  such  treatment  the  results  obtained  are  often  not 
entirely  satisfactory. 

This  product  of  the  chemical  laboratory  can  hardly 
be  dififerentiated  from  real  silk  by  microscopical  examin- 
ation because  of  the  absolute  lack  of  physical  character- 
istics that  exists  in  both  types  of  fiber;  it  happens,  however, 
that  the  one  physical  point  of  difference  lies  in  the  greater 
luster  of  the  artificial  silk, which  shows  such  an  increase  over 
that  of  real  silk  that  identification  can  be  made  merely 
from  an  inspection  of  the  fabrics.  In  case  any  doubt 
remains  in  the  mind  of  the  inspector  recourse  may  be  had 
to  simple  chemical  tests  that  are  infallible. 

Differentiation  of  Artificial  and  True  Silk. — The  sim- 
plest of  these  tests  is  burning  and  identifying  the  odor  that 
results;  an  odor  as  of  burning  feathers  indicates  real  silk,  an 
odor  as  of  burning  wood  indicates  artificial  silk.  Another 
test,  that  improves  on  this  test  by  replacing  the  factor  of 
personal  judgment  with  one  of  purely  chemical  character, 
is  conducted  by  heating  a  portion  of  the  fibers  under 
examination  in  a  dry  test  tube  and  testing  the  reaction  of 
the  volatile  matter  driven  off  by  this  treatment  with  a 
piece  of  moist  neutral  litmus  paper  placed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  test  tube.     If  the  litmus  paper  becomes  red,  the 

26 


Fibers 

fumes  are  acid  and  prove  the  fibers  to  be  artificial  silk;  if 
the  litmus  paper  becomes  blue,  the  fumes  are  alkaline  with 
ammonia  and  prove  the  fibers  to  be  real  silk. 

These  are  two  of  the  few  reliable  tests  recommended 
for  the  identification  of  textile  fibers.  Textile  literature 
is  filled  with  tests  that  are  said  to  be  good  and  that  have 
been  praised  beyond  their  actual  merits.  It  is  often 
quite  possible  that  these  tests  deserve  their  reputation  for 
great  delicacy  of  indication,  provided  we  consider  one 
important  factor,  i.  e.,  the  relation  of  the  manipulator  to 
the  results.  If  the  delicacy  of  the  test  is  greater  than  the 
degree  of  d  iicacy  of  technic  that  lies  within  the  possi- 
bilities of  tht  average  manipulator,  the  chances  are  that 
the  test  will  fail  when  applied  by  other  than  the  man  who 
has  worked  it  out.  The  process  of  evolution  has  gained  for 
the  originator  of  the  test  a  knowledge  of  the  reactions 
involved  and  a  fineness  of  technic  that  is  denied  to  others 
who  may  attempt  to  use  it.  It  is  deemed  advisable  to 
include  in  this  chapter  a  discussion  of  the  tests  that  have 
the  full  endorsement  of  the  authors. 

Tests  for  Vegetable  Fibers  in  Mixtiires.—li  the  presence 
of  cotton  or  linen  is  suspected  in  a  wool  or  silk  fabric,  proof 
can  be  obtained  by  boiling  a  small  piece  of  the  cloth  in  a 
5%  solution  of  caustic  soda  for  five  minutes.  At  the  end 
of  this  period  the  wool  or  silk  will  be  entirely  dissolved 
and  any  cotton  or  linen  that  may  be  present  will  remain 
unaffected  by  this  treatment. 

Tests  for  Animal  Fibers. — If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
desired  to  remove  the  cotton  or  linen  and  leave  the  wool 
or  silk,  the  cloth  may  be  saturated  with  a  2%  solution  of 
sulfuric  acid  (H2SO4)  and  then  dried  in  an  oven  at  100°C. 
for  an  hour.  This  treatment  chars  cotton  and  linen  fibers 
and  they  can  be  readily  removed  by  rubbing  the  cloth  gently 
between    the    palms   of    the    hands.     The  wool   and  silk 

27 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

successfully  resist  the  action  of  the  acid.  These  tests  may 
be  made  quantitative  by  using  weighed  samples,  carefully 
washing,  drying  and  weighing  the  residue.  The  weight  of 
the  residue  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  sample  and  multi- 
plied by  100  equals  the  percentage  of  wool  or  silk  in  the 
case  of  treatment  with  sulfuric  acid,  and  of  cotton  or 
linen  in  the  case  of  treatment  with  caustic  soda.  Figs. 
7,  8  and  9  illustrate  the  application  of  these  treatments  to 
a  fabric  of  cotton  and  wool  mixture.  Fig.  7  shows  a  piece 
of  the  whole  cloth  that  has  been  dyed  with  an  acid  dye 
and  later  bleached  to  differentiate  between  the  cotton  and 
the  wool.  The  cotton  is  bleached  white  while  the  wool 
retains  its  color.  Fig.  8  shows  the  cotton  threads  that  have 
resisted  the  action  of  boiling  caustic  solution,  the  open 
spaces  having  been  occupied  by  the  wool  that  was  dis- 
solved out  by  this  treatment.  Fig.  9  shows  the  condition 
of  the  fabric  after  treatment  with  sulfuric  acid,  and  pre- 
sents the  unaffected  wool  fibers  with  the  cotton  removed. 

It  is  possible  to  differentiate  between  the  two  animal 
fibers  by  chemical  analysis,  but  the  procedure  is  too 
complex  and  the  apparatus  required  too  bulky  to  be  at 
the  command  of  everyone.  There  is  no  chemical  means 
of  differentiating  between  the  vegetable  fibers  in  spite  of 
the  oft-repeated  statement  that  such  differentiation  may 
be  made  by  treating  a  mixed  cotton  and  linen  cloth  with 
concentrated  sulfuric  acid  for  one  or  two  minutes,  drying 
and  washing.  The  statement  is  made  that  the  linen  will 
survive  this  treatment  while  the  cotton  will  not.  The 
degree  of  solubility  of  cotton  in  sulfuric  acid  approximates 
that  of  linen  too  closely  to  permit  a  separation  by  this 
method.  For  these  reasons,  in  cases  that  prove  difficult  to 
decide,  it  is  often  desirable  to  conduct  final  tests  with  the 
microscope. 

Although  the  examination  of  a  fiber  with  the  micro- 
scope is  the  quickest  and  most  reliable  method  of  identify- 

28 


Fibers 


P'ig.  7.  Wool  and  Cotton  Mixture.  This  mixture  was  dyed  to 
differentiate  between  the  wool  and  the  cotton  in  the  photograph.  The 
dark  portion  is  the  wool  and  the  light  portion  is  the  cotton. 


29 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


."I'v'  ..'-■^^&^iUiS,Ji 


mm 


■;:iKiBi 


Fig.  8.  Cotton  that  has  Survived  Treatment  with  Caustic 
Soda.  A  piece  of  the  fabric  pictured  in  Fig.  7  was  boiled  in  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  caustic  soda  for  five  minutes.  This  treatment  dissolved  the 
wool  and  left  the  cotton  as  it  appears  in  the  above  photograph. 


30 


Fibers 


fjCAjm«.''< 


2QU<r,r 


Fig.  9.  Wool  that  has  Sl  kvivkd  Treatment  with  Sulfuric 
Acid.  A  piece  of  the  fabric  pictured  in  Fig.  7  was  dipped  in  a  2  per 
cent,  solution  of  sulfuric  acid  and  dried  for  one  hour  at  212  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  It  was  then  rubbed  between  the  palms  of  the  hands.  The 
cotton  was  charred  by  the  action  of  the  acid  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit 
and  was  removed  b\-  the  rubbing. 


31 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

ing  it,  there  are  times  when  the  microscope  is  inaccessible 
and  when  we  must  be  prepared  to  recognize  fibers  from 
their  characteristic  appearance  when  spun  and  woven  into 
fabrics.  The  characteristic  appearance  of  the  four  fibers 
considered  here,  as  observed  without  chemical  or  physical 
aids,  are  distinct,  yet  the  best  way  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  their  differences  is  to  obtain  pieces  of  material,  pick 
them  apart,  feel  them,  and  examine  them  closely  for 
distinguishing  features.  There  are  certain  statements 
which  can  be  incorporated  into  such  a  book  as  this,  like 
the  fact  that  mercerized  cotton  is  glossier  than  natural 
cotton,  and  that  silk  is  glossier  than  cither  natural  or 
mercerized  cotton;  that  linen  has  a  gloss,  but  that  it  is  not 
so  hard  or  high  as  that  of  silk  or  even  mercerized  cotton ; 
that  wool  is  crinkly  and  elastic,  etc.  But  what  we  cannot 
do  is  to  describe  accurately  the  difference  between  the 
several  glosses  or  between  the  crinkle  due  to  the  nature  of 
the  wool  fiber  and  that  which  is  acquired  in  the  fabric  as 
the  result  of  the  strain  exerted  by  the  crossed  threads,  so 
that  the  reader  may  judge  all  cases  unerringly.  There  are 
things  that  the  eye  can  perceive  quickly  and  the  mind 
retain  readily,  but  which  are  difficult  of  description.  The 
time  required  to  train  the  eye  and  mind  to  accurate  differ- 
entiation through  observation  is  actually  less  than  the 
time  required  to  make  the  most  accurate,  skilled  descrip- 
tion possible,  which  at  its  best  would  be  inadequate  because 
of  the  limitations  of  the  written  language. 

So  our  advice  to  a  laundry  claim  adjuster  is,  not  to 
go  to  books  for  word  pictures,  l)ut  to  go  to  the  fabrics 
themselves  for  original  pictures.  This  may  mean  "shop- 
ping" for  samples  of  known  quality  and  construction  to 
be  used  as  standards,  or  it  may  merely  mean  the  exten- 
sion of  interest  to  all  fabrics  that  are  received  at  the 
laundry;  in  any  case  it  means  keen  observation  and 
accurate  memory,  combined  with  a  strict  avoidance  of 
"snap"  judgments. 


32 


CHAPTER  II. 
Weaves. 

WEAVING,  by  which  means  rpun  fibers  are  con- 
verted into  fabrics,  consists  of  intertwining  at  least 
two  systems  of  threads  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
individual  thread  maintains  a  definite  position  to  the 
rest  of  the  threads  and  the  two  systems  are  locked  in 
their  respective  positions.  The  threads  running  length- 
wise of  the  cloth,  parallel  to  the  selvedge,  are  known  as 
the  "warp,"  while  those  running  at  right  angles  to  the 
selvedge  are  termed  the  "filling." 

Plain  Weaves. — In  the  simplest  form  of  weaving 
(what  is  known  as  the  plain  weave)  no  two  adjacent 
filling  threads  cross  one  warp  thread  on  the  same  side  of 
the  cloth.  While  the  odd  filling  threads  are  going  under 
one  warp  thread  the  even  filling  threads  are  going  over  it. 
This  order  is  changed  for  the  next  warp  thread,  the  odd 
filling  threads  going  over  and  the  even  going  under.  (See 
Fig.  10  for  details  of  this  construction.)  A  homely  ex- 
ample of  this  method  of  weaving,  and  one '  with 
which  the  most  of  us  are  familiar,  is  the  "darning"  stitch 
used  in  mending.  In  this  process  the  hole  to  be  mended 
is  filled  with  parallel  threads  placed  rather  close  together; 
after  this  is  accomplished,  the  needle  is  started  across  the 
hole  at  right  angles  to  the  threads  already  there,  in  its 
passage  picking  up  every  other  thread.  To  return  to  the 
other  side  of  the  hole  those  threads  that  were  not  taken 
up  the  last  time  are  "picked  up,"  with  the  result  that  both 
systems  are  locked  together  and  a  "woven"  fabric  fills  the 
hole.  The  very  first  weaving  was  done  in  this  simple 
manner,    the    first    system    of    threads    (the    warp)    being 

33 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


^'-r 


-i' 


O, 


•*^  -i-^^' 


W^"^***'' 


if 


-^1^. 


«^ 


Fig.  10.  Plain  Weave.  A  portion  of  a  piece  of  fabric  made  by 
the  "plain  weave"  pattern.  The  regular  "over  one-under  one"  course 
of  both  warp  and  the  filling  is  made  plain  here  by  enlargement  with  the 
microscope. 


34 


Weaves 


Fig.  11.  "Satin"  Stitch.  The  "under  one-over  four"  stitch, 
known  as  the  satin  stitch,  is  used  in  weaving  satins  to  give  the  smooth 
unbroken  surface  finish  and  in  fancy  fabrics  of  all  kinds  to  facilitate  the 
change  from  background  to  pattern. 


35 


The  Couscrvation  of  Textiles 

strung  between  two  poles.  It  was  learned,  however,  that 
the  process  could  be  hastened  by  certain  mechanical 
improvements  that  are  represented  in  their  highest  degree 
of  perfection  by  our  present-day  power  looms  that  weave 
so  rapidly  that  one  is  not  able  to  follow  the  separate 
motions. 

Fancy  Weaves. — There  are  many  variations  of  the 
fundamental  plan,  or  plain  weave,  possible,  but  the  two 
ideas  upon  which  these  variations  are  based  are  (1)  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  systems  of  threads  involved,  and 
(2)  a  lengthening  of  the  "floats."  A  "float"  is  that  portion 
of  any  thread  of  one  system  that  crosses  another  thread 
or  other  threads  of  the  second  system.  In  the  plain 
weave  the  floats  are  only  one  thread-diameter  in  length 
because  the  threads  of  this  weave  are  carried  over  only 
one  thread  at  a  time  (see  Fig.  10).  Where  the  threads  are 
carried  over  two  or  more  threads  in  succession  the  floats 
are  two  or  more  thread-diameters  in  length  (see  Fig.  11). 
The  advantage  of  longer  floats  is  an  increased  reflection  of 
light  and  a  consequent  increase  of  gloss.  This  advantage 
is  desirable  in  itself  as  increasing  the  esthetic  value  of  the 
fabric,  but  by  means  of  it  another  advantage  is  obtained, 
that  is,  the  possibility  of  producing  "patterns"  in  fabric  in 
solid  colors  by  carrying  the  floats  in  opposite  directions  in 
adjacent  areas.  A  comparison  of  a  plain  weave  cloth 
with  a  damask  pattern  illustrates  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  the  use  of  the  long  floats. 

But  with  the  advantages  gained  by  the  use  of  long  floats 
and  by  the  use  of  several  systems  of  threads  come  many 
disadvantages  as  the  result  of  the  law  of  compensation  that 
governs  this  world  and  exacts  from  us  pay  for  everything. 
This  law  and  its  rule  are  evidenced  in  fabrics  by  a  definite 
relation  between  the  fibers  employed,  the  degree  of  spin- 
ning, the  type  of  weave  and  the  strength  of  the  fabric;  this 
relation  is  not  to  be  ignored  in  our  consideration  of  claims 

36 


/  leaves 


Fig.  12.  Uneven  Distribution  of  W.arp  and  Filling.  The 
heavy  white  threads  are  of  cotton  and  represent  the  filling  of  a  so-called 
silk  shirt.  The  fine  threads  are  silk  and  are  the  warp  threads.  Such  a 
great  difference  in  weight  of  the  two  systems  is  undesirable  from  the 
standpoint  of  utility,  but  enables  the  manufacturer  to  offer  the  fabric 
at  a  much  lower  price  than  if  enough  silk  were  used  to  make  the  fabric 
strong. 


37 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

for  damage.  By  all  rights  the  buyer  should  be  cognizant 
of  this  law  of  compensation  and  its  application  to  fabrics, 
and  should  know  what  type  of  cloth  to  purchase  and  how 
much  wear  to  expect  of  it  when  applied  to  different  uses. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,  and,  since  it  is  not,  the 
laundryowner  must  acquire  the  knowledge,  in  order  to 
protect  himself  and  incidentally  to  assist  in  the  move 
toward  more  general  enlightenment.  If  the  laundry- 
owner  is  able  to  accompany  his  decision  of  a  claim  with  a 
clear  simple  explanation  of  the  limits  of  his  responsibility 
and  to  point  out  without  prejudice  where  the  responsi- 
bility really  lies,  the  average  patron  will  welcome  the 
information  and  make  use  of  it  in  the  future. 

The  Ideal  Fabric. — In  considering  the  several  factors 
that  combine  to  produce  the  "quality"  of  a  fabric,  first 
attention  goes  most  logically  to  the  individual  threads 
involved.  These  may  be  heavy  or  fine,  strong  or  weak, 
tightly  spun  or  loosly  spun,  but  in  combination  as  the 
warp  and  filling  of  a  fabric  they  should  be  of  equal  quality 
to  meet  ideal  conditions.  Ideal  conditions  are  threads 
that  are  composed  of  fibers  of  good  length  (standard  of 
length  varies  for  each  fiber,  as  indicated  in  Chapter  II) 
that  have  been  well  spun  to  give  a  smooth,  even  thread  of 
uniform  strength;  such  well  prepared  threads  combine  so 
that  the  warp  and  filling  are  of  equal  size  and  strength,* 
occur  in  equal  numbers  per  inch  and  are  interlocked  to  the 
greatest  degree.  These  conditions  guarantee  a  fabric  of 
highest  tensile  strength,  greatest  firmness  and  best  wearing 
qualities,  that  can  be  obtained  with  the  v/eight  of  thread 
chosen.  They  do  not,  however,  guarantee  a  fabric  of 
greatest  beauty,  as  judged  by  our  modern  standards. 
Beauty"and  decorativeness  are  acquired  at  the  sacrifice  of  a 
portion  of  one  or  all  of  the  qualities  previously  mentioned. 

*It  is  seldom  found  expedient  to  follow  the  specifications  for  the  ideal  fabric  to  the 
point  of  choosing  the  warp  and  the  filling  threads  of  equal  weight.  On  account  of  the 
strain  exerted  on  the  warp  that  the  filling  is  not  called  upon  to  stand,  the  warp  threads 
are  usually  a  little  stronger  than  the  filling. 


38 


Weaves 

Variations  from  the  "Ideal." — The  ideal  cloth  may  be 
made  of  heavy  or  of  fine  threads,  the  difiference  showing  in 
the  weight  and  strength  of  the  fabric;  these  quaUties  being 
uniform  for  each  piece.  Variations  of  this  ideal  cloth  are 
produced  by  combining  loosely  spun  warp  with  tightly 
spun  filling  (or  vice  versa) ;  by  combining  heavy  warp 
with  fine  filling;  by  introducing  a  heavy  thread  at 
given  intervals  to  produce  a  corded  effect,  or  by  omitting 
one  occasionally  to  obtain  the  effect  of  a  "drawn"  thread; 
by  floating  the  threads  more  than  one  thread-diameter; 
by  decreasing  the  number  of  threads  per  inch  in  one 
system  without  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  other  sys- 
tem; or  by  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  methods 
to  produce  the  more  extreme  "patterns."  Each  variation 
exacts  its  compensation  for  added  beauty  by  causing  a 
reduction  of  the  tensile  strength  or  of  the  firmness  and 
consequently  of  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  fabric,  the 
reduction  being  proportional  to  the  degree  of  variation. 

The  loss  in  wearing  qualities  is  brought  about  by  the 
actual  reduction  of  the  strength  of  the  individual  threads, 
as  in  the  case  of  loosely  spun  threads  or  of  fine  threads; 
by  the  greater  friction  exerted  by  one  thread  on  a  second 
than  the  second  is  able  to  return,  as  in  a  combination  of 
heavy  and  fine  threads  or  of  tight  spun  and  loosely  spun 
threads;  by  the  increased  friction  that  a  long  float  must 
stand  as  a  consequence  of  its  more  exposed  position;  and 
by  the  loss  of  unity  where  threads  are  omitted. 

Loose  Spinning. — Some  illustrations  of  the  consequen- 
ces of  these  variations  have  been  received  at  the  authors' 
laboratory  from  time  to  time  and  some  interesting  results 
have  been  gathered  in  the  form  of  photographs.  Fig.  12 
is  an  extreme  example  of  the  use  of  a  heavy  filling  and 
a  weak  warp,  and  was  taken  from  a  half  silk  shirt  which 
had  failed  to  stand  careful  hand  laundering.  The  warp  is 
of  real  silk,  which  has  previously  been  declared  to  be  the 


39 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


...  IM 


Fig.  13.  A  Low  Priced  Silk  Collar.  This  grade  of  collar,  that 
sold  at  a  very  popular  price,  ha.s  been  found  to  fail  in  laundering  much 
too  soon  for  the  amount  of  wear  received.  Examination  showed  it  to 
be  a  cotton,  real-silk  combination,  but  the  silk  represented  only  20  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  fabric. 


40 


Weaves 


Fig.  14.  Photomicrograph  ok  Fig.  13.  This  enlargement  of  a 
portion  of  Fig.  13  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  manufacturer  was  able 
to  make  20  per  cent,  of  silk  cover  80  per  cent,  of  cotton  to  give  a  high 
luster.  The  silk  is  absolutely  unspun  so  that  it  can  be  spread  over  as 
much  surface  as  possible.  The  silk  fibers  as  they  pass  over  the  cotton 
warp  threads,  are  placed  in  a  position  of  greatest  exposure  to  friction 
and  are  soon  worn  through. 


41 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

strongest  natural  fiber,  but  in  this  case  the  natural  strength 
was  sacrificed  in  an  endeavor  to  save  silk  by  omitting 
the  throwing*  so  that  a  given  amount  of  silk  would  cover  a 
greater  surface.  By  carrying  the  silk  fibers  parallel  over 
the  heavy  cotton  filling  threads  more  surface  is  covered  and 
a  greater  luster  is  obtained  than  would  be  possible  with 
any  other  treatment  of  the  same  amount  of  silk.  The 
advantage  gained  in  this  direction  was  entirely  counter- 
balanced, however,  by  the  great  loss  in  the  wearing 
qualities  of  the  material.  Had  the  same  amount  of 
cotton  and  silk  been  combined  so  that  the  tensile  strength 
of  the  two  systems  and  the  friction  of  one  system  on  the 
other  would  be  more  nearly  equal,  a  fabric  of  greater 
strength,  but  of  less  sheen,  would  have  been  produced.  A 
similar  combination  of  silk  and  cotton,  which  was  made 
for  appearance  rather  than  for  wear,  is  illustrated  in  Figs. 
13  and  14. 

The  same  condition  of  unthrown  fibers,  in  this  case 
of  artificial  silk  filling  and  cotton  warp,  occurred  in  another 
shirt  submitted  at  about  the  same  time.  The  condition 
of  this  fabric  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  Such  deliberate  sacri- 
fice of  quality  for  appearance  suggests  intention  on  the 
part  of  the  manufacturer  of  deceiving  the  public.  It  may, 
however,  be  the  natural  result  of  a  demand  on  the  part  of 
the  public  for  a  fabric  of  high  luster  and  silky  appearance 
at  an  extremely  low  price.  But,  whatever  the  cause,  if 
the  consumer  can  not  or  will  not  see  that  no  gain  is  made 
without  an  equal  or  often  greater  accompanying  loss,  he 
must  continue  to  see  his  clothes  drop  to  pieces  through 
wear  or  laundering  and  should  receive  no  recompense 
from  the  blameless  laundryman. 

Long  Floats. — Figs.  16  and  17  are  illustrative  of  one  of 
the  disadvantages  that  accompany  the  long  float.    Fig.  16 

*Silk  is  "thrown,"  or  only  slightly  spun,  together  when  fibers  of  good  quality  and 
length  are  used.  The  short  lengths  are  "spun,"  to  make  the  sewing  and  embroidery 
threads. 


42 


Weaves 


Fig.  15.  Photomicrograph  of  a  Shirt  Fabric.  This  photo- 
micrograph shows  a  portion  of  an  artificial  silic  and  cotton  shirt.  This 
fabric  is  weak  for  the  same  reason  that  the  fabric  pictured  in  Fig.  12  is 
weak,  but  the  difference  in  weight  between  the  warp  and  filling  of  this 
fabric  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  other  cas2. 


43 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


%  *i 


Fig.  16.  Photomicrogr.\ph  Showing  Long  Floats.  The  area 
pictured  here  shows  floats  of  varying  length,  some  being  as  long  as  18 
thread-diameters.  Such  great  length  exposes  the  threads  to  undue 
friction  that  causes  the  fabric  to  fail  much  sooner  than  is  economically 
desirable. 


44 


J  V  eaves 


^  ipi. 


i    f.  i 


Fig.  17.  DisPL.vcED  Floats.  The  reason  for  presenting  this 
photomicrograph  is  to  demonstrate  the  looseness  of  a  fabric  in  which 
long  floats  occur  and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  displaced  during 
wear. 


45 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  18.  Damask  Pattern  in  Cotton.  This  is  a  portion  of  the 
fabric  that  furnished  the  photomicrographs  of  Figures  16  and  17.  The 
long  floats  occurred  in  the  floral  pattern,  which  was  the  part  of  the 
fabric  that  first  showed  the  effects  of  wear. 


46 


Weaves 


Fig.  19.  A  Worn  Portion  of  the  F"abric  Pictured  in  Fig.  18. 
When  this  damage  appeared  in  a  pair  of  pajamas,  the  owner  claimed 
abuse  by  the  laundry.  The  series  of  photographs,  Figures  16,  17  and 
18,  demonstrates  why  the  launderer  was  justified  in  refusing  payment 
of  this  claim  on  the  grounds  that  the  fabric  had  not  been  wisely  chosen 
for  the  wear  it  was  to  receive. 


47 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

shows  a  portion  of  a  fabric  that  contains  some  unusually 
long  floats,  some  of  which  were  18  thread-diameters  or  one- 
fourth  inch  in  length.  Fig.  17  shows  the  looseness  of  weave 
that  results  when  so  many  long  floats  occur  at  one  place, 
and  the  distance  that  each  float  can  "slip"  from  its  posi- 
tion. This  slipping  was  accompanied  by  such  friction  that 
the  fabric  gave  way  at  the  spots  where  these  floats  occurred, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  fabric,  which  was  of  plain  weave, 
retained  its  original  strength.  Fig.  18  is  a  photograph  of  a 
portion  of  this  fabric  that  showed  no  damages  but  pos- 
sessed all  the  inherent  weaknesses  described  and  waited 
only  for  the  requisite  friction  or  strain  to  demonstrate  them. 
Fig.  19  is  a  photograph  of  an  area  that  failed  in  several 
places,  and  showed  the  damages  to  follow  the  design.  An 
interesting  and  illuminating  observation  to  be  made  in  con- 
nection with  these  photographs  is  that  this  material  was 
made  up  into  pajamas.  The  wear  to  which  it  was  subjected 
in  this  role  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  wear  that  it 
could  stand.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether 
the  manufacturer  of  the  cloth,  the  designer  of  the  garment 
or  the  purchaser  is  to  be  blamed  for  the  failure  of  the  fabric. 

This  type  of  failure  is  aggravated  when  the  fabric  is 
made  from  all  cotton  fibers.  In  this  connection  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  the  threads  used  in  fabrics  are  composed 
of  numerous  short  lengths  twisted  together.  The  action  of 
friction  is,  therefore,  less  a  matter  of  wearing  through  the 
individual  fibers  than  it  is  a  matter  of  rubbing  these  fibers 
apart.  In  linen  fabrics  the  fibers  are  comparatively  long 
furnishing  fewer  fiber  ends  per  inch  of  finished  thread  and 
reducing  the  possibility  of  their  being  rubbed  apart  during 
use.  Cotton  fibers  are,  on  the  contrary,  short  and  many 
more  are  included  in  an  inch  of  spun  thread.  Therefore, 
when  a  portion  of  a  cotton  thread  is  exposed  to  extra  fric- 
tion, the  time  required  to  sever  the  thread  is  greatly  re- 
duced. Figs.  20  and  21  are  photographs  of  failures  in  cot- 
ton damask  that  are  to  be  accounted  for  only  by  the  fact 

48 


JVeaves 


Fig.  20.  K.MLUKK  IN  Table  Linen  Due  to  the  Use  of  Short 
Fibers  in  Long  Floats.  When  short  fibers  are  used  in  spun  threads, 
the  number  of  fiber  ends  per  inch  is  greater  than  when  long  fibers  are 
used.  By  weaving  short  fibers  in  a  plain  weave  pattern  the  greatest 
wearirlg  quality  is  obtained  from  them.  Long  floats  permit  the  fiber 
ends  to  be  rubbed  apart,  eventually  causing  a  break  in  the  thread. 


49 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  21.  Failure  in  Tablecloth.  This  failure  is  also  due  to  the 
use  of  short  fibers  and  is  explained  under  Fig.  20.  It  is  given  a  special 
place  in  this  book,  however,  because  it  is  typical  of  the  failures  that 
occur  along  the  border  of  cotton  damasks. 


50 


Weaves 

that  the  floats  were  too  long  in  comparison  to  the  length  of 
the  fibers  that  were  used  in  preparing  the  fabric. 

Fig.  22  illustrates  the  ease  with  which  the  "satin" 
weave  slips  out  of  place.  This  is  a  common  occurrence  in 
shirts  that  are  made  with  stripes  produced  by  this  method 
of  weaving,  and  results  from  the  looseness  that  is  incident 
to  the  "over  four-under  one"  method  of  combining  the 
warp  and  the  filling.  Where  the  filling  is  of  cotton  this 
slipping  does  not  occur  quite  so  readily  because  the  surface 
of  the  filling  threads  ofTer  a  higher  friction  to  the  silk  threads 
due  to  their  rougher  finish.  Similar  slipping  will  occur  even 
in  a  plain  weave,  all-silk  fabric  wherein  the  number  of 
filling  threads  per  inch  is  too  low  to  produce  a  firm  fabric. 
Such  slipping  is  not  a  true  damage,  since  no  threads  are 
broken  or  even  stretched  during  the  change  of  position;  it 
can  often  be  remedied  by  gently  rubbing  the  fabric  between 
the  fingers,  all  motions  being  planned  to  return  the  indi- 
vidual threads  to  their  original  positions. 

Short  Fibers  and  Loose  Spinning. — Another  example 
of  weakness  due  to  the  method  of  weaving,  this  time  oc- 
curring in  a  woolen  fabric,  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  a 
pair  of  blankets.  The  process  of  laundering,  which  the 
laundryowner  claimed  was  carefully  conducted  along 
approved  methods  (this  claim  was  fully  substantiated  by 
the  soft,  unfelted  appearance  of  the  blankets),  had  reduced 
the  blankets  to  shreds,  the  damaged  portions  showing  the 
filling  gone  and  only  the  warp  remaining,  as  illustrated  by 
Fig.  23.  Close  examination  showed  that  the  exhibit  had 
presented  an  appearance  of  great  weight  and  softness  to 
someone  not  acquainted  with  the  tricks  of  the  weaving 
trade.  To  the  initiated,  however,  it  appeared  as  it  actually 
was, — a  fabric  composed  of  a  three-ply  cotton  thread,  with 
which  enough  wool  had  been  spun  to  partially  cover  its 
identity,  as  the  warp  and  a  loosely  spun  woolen  thread  as 
the  filling.    Woolen  is  here  used  in  the  light  of  the  expla- 


51 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  22.  The  Satin  Stitch  in  Silk  F.vbrics.  This  photomicro- 
graph illustrates  a  source  of  wear  and  a  type  of  damage  that  is  quite 
common  in  silk  fabrics  that  have  satin  stripes  in  them.  The  extremely 
smooth  surface  of  the  silk  threads  offer  no  great  resistance  to  each 
other  so  that  they  slip  out  of  position  with  the  application  of  very  little 
force. 


52 


IV  eaves 

nation  given  in  a  foregoing  chapter  tiiat  woolen  yarn  is 
made  of  the  shorter  fibers.  Further  than  this  the  carding 
process  which  raises  the  nap  and  gives  the  blanket  its  soft, 
fuzzy  appearance  had  of  necessity  reduced  the  actual 
weight  of  the  filling  yarn  so  that  it  was  extremely  weak. 
The  expression  "of  necessity"  is  used  advisedly  since  the 
amount  of  wool  contained  in  the  warp  was  so  small  as  to 
be  practically  negligible.  The  appearance  of  the  true 
fabric  of  the  blankets  is  shown  in  Fig.  24,  in  which  the  nap 
has  been  clipped  to  expose  the  details  of  structure.  Such 
a  procedure  is  denied  the  prospective  purchaser,  but  there 
are  ways  of  examining  a  fabric  that  will  furnish  conclusive 
evidence,  without  injury  to  the  article,  which  everyone 
should  apply. 

"Pile"  Fabrics. — "Terry"  or  loop-pile  fabrics  offer  an- 
other possibility  for  damage  (see  Fig.  25),  that  is  quite 
often  said  to  be  the  launderer's  fault  by  the  uninformed 
patron.  The  bath  towel  is  the  one  member  of  this  class  of 
fabrics  that  we  are  most  often  asked  to  renovate,  but  other 
members  that  are  handled  less  often  are  bath  mats,  counter- 
panes and  other  piled  fabrics  of  domestic  application. 
These  fabrics  are  produced  from  two  separate  systems  of 
warp  threads,  (a)  the  ground  warp  threads  that  go  to  form 
the  true  fabric,  and  (b)  the  pile  warp  threads  that  form  the 
loops  on  the  surface  of  the  fabric  which  are  placed  on  sepa- 
rate warp  beams.  The  usual  method  of  weaving  employs 
the  ground  and  pile  warp  in  equal  proportions,  arranged  in 
the  loom  alternately  or  in  alternate  pairs.  In  each  case 
the  final  result  is  the  same  to  all  practical  purposes.  Dur- 
ing weaving  the  ground  warp  is  held  tight,  but  the  pile 
warp  is  permitted  to  be  quite  loose  so  that  it  may  be  looped 
up  to  form  the  pile  with  great  ease.  Terry  fabrics  are  said 
to  be  one,  three,  four,  five  or  six-thread  terry  fabrics,  ac-. 
cording  to  the  number  of  filling  threads  that  are  inserted 
for  each  cross  row  of  loops. 

53 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  23.  Failure  in  Blanket.  This  blanket,  claimed  to  be 
worth  S12.00  at  the  time  when  this  amount  of  money  should  have 
bought  a  really  good  blanket,  was  laundered  after  a  season's  use  by  a 
power  laundry  with  the  result  that  it  was  reduced  to  shreads  as  illus- 
trated in  this  picture.  Examination  showed  the  blame  for  this  condition 
to  fall  to  the  construction  of  the  fabric  rather  than  to  the  laundering. 
Fig.  24  displays  the  details  of  this  fabric. 


54 


J  V  eaves 


A     <? 


«*y 


Fig.  24.  Photomicrograph  of  Failure  in  Blanket.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  photograph  the  nap  was  clipped  from  a  portion  of  the 
blanket  that  had  not  been  damaged.  This  made  it  possible  to  observe 
the  condition  of  the  threads  that  had  been  used  in  weaving  the  fabric. 
The  warp,  which  runs  across  the  page,  was  found  to  be  a  well  spun, 
three-ply,  cotton  thread  with  a  small  amount  of  wool  spun  with  it  to 
mask  its  identity.  The  filling  was  a  loosely  spun  wool  thread  made 
from  short  fibers.  The  nap  had  been  combed  from  this  portion  of  the 
fabric  and  had  left  a  much  weakened  filling  which  had  broken  under 
the  weight  of  the  whole  fabric  when  wet.  The  diagram  in  the  upper 
right  hand  corner  shows  the  degree  of  twisting  that  the  two  systems 
of  threads  had  been  given.  The  warp  and 'filling  threads  were  super- 
imposed along  the  line  A-B,  and  the  lines  C-D  and  C-E  were  obtained 
by  paralleling  the  course  of  the  fibers  of  the  threads.  The  angle  BCD 
represents  the  degree  of  twist  in  the  filling;  the  angle  BCE,  the  degree 
of  twist  in  the  warp. 


:)0 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Fig.  26  represents  a  Terry  fabric  of  the  simplest  con- 
struction possible.  Here  the  ground  and  pile  warp  threads 
are  alternated  and  are  woven  with  the  filling  in  the  plain 
weave  manner.  The  result  is  that  a  minimum  of  contact  be- 
tween the  pile  warp  and  the  ground  fabric  occurs.  When 
the  ground  fabric  is  more  closely  beaten  up  than  that  which 
furnished  this  figure,  the  pile  threads  are  held  a  little  more 
closely,  but  this  type  of  weaving  is  not  designed  to  pro- 
duce a  good  firm  Terry  fabric;  it  is  used  only  in  the  very 
poorest  grade  of  toweling.  The  better  grades  of  toweling 
are  woven  on  the  three,  four,  five  or  six-thread  plan,  of 
which  the  6-thread  plan  is  the  best  because  of  the  increased 
contact  between  the  pile  warp  and  the  ground  fabric.  The 
six-thread  plan  is,  indeed,  excellent  because  in  it  the  pile 
warp  actually  is  woven  into  the  ground  fabric,  not  merely 
looped  into  it. 

Figs.  27  and  28  present  samples  of  the  three-thread 
Terry  fabric.  The  plan  necessitates  the  individual  threads 
traveling  "over  two-under  one."  Consecutive  ground  threads 
weave  in  contrary  manner  to  each  other  as  do  consecutive 
pile  threads;  that  is,  while  one  thread  (of  ground  or  pile 
warp)  is  going  over  two-under  one,  its  next  neighbor  is 
going  under  two-over  one.  In  this  way  the  ground  fabric 
is  regularly  woven  and  the  pile  threads  alternate  in  looping 
on  the  face  and  the.  back  of  the  fabric,  producing  a  double 
piled  cloth.  Variations  of  the  arrangement  of  the  warp 
threads — that  is,  alternating  them  singly  or  in  groups — 
make  differences  in  the  desirability  of  the  finished  fabric. 
Fig.  27  is  arranged  so  that  a  pair  of  pile  warp  threadsalter- 
nate  with  a  single  ground  warp  thread,  making  the  pile 
loops  of  double  threads  instead  of  single  as  in  Fig.  28, 
where  the  ground  and  pile  warp  threads  alternate  singly. 
Fig.  29  shows  even  a  greater  grouping  of  pile  warp  than 
does  either  of  the  other  two  illustrations.  Here  the  pile 
warp   occurs   in   groups   of   six  which  are  placed  with   the 

56 


Weaves 


1 

^^^R??!^ 

i 

1 

1 

I 

1 

■ 

■ 

^HB^  .  N 

1 

^ 

H 

H 

1 

^ 

-  li 

1 

^^^K  ^ 

<••," 

f 

'9 

^^^^B> 

*■  -^ 

if 

tt'^H^B 

■'  *l 

J- 

1 

Fig.  25.  Typical  F.mlure  of  Bath  Toweling.  Loops  of  the 
pile  are  caught  and  the  pile  warp  is  pulled  out  for  some  distance,  giving 
long  threads  that  becoinc  intertwined  and  knotted  on  the  surface  of  the 
towel  as  illustrated, 


57 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


■  •iwtiKi,; 
'•Mifi.i;,;  * 

'■-    IIH»I,,, 


<>'  •■  ■  >t  iikI 


.  1 1*1 " 


.,..  ']^^\]v^h 

c  ""'.r,',',',v    ,'i'i'.i'n'>> 


<I4I 


Fig.  26.  Poor  Grade  Bath  Toweling.  (Terry  Fabric.)  The 
background  weave  is  the  simple  plain  weave.  This  is  a  very  poor 
foundation  for  pile  fabrics  at  the  very  best,  but  when  it  is  as  loosely 
woven  as  in  this  exhibit,  the  result  is  that  the  pile  "pulls"  and  the 
towel  assumes  the  appearance  of  Fig.  25.  The  pile  warp  threads 
have  been  removed  so  that  their  relation  to  the  whole  fabric  can  be 
observed. 


58 


Weaves 


Fig.  27.  Medium  Grade  of  Terry  Fabric.  This  towel  was 
submitted  for  examination  to  the  Department  of  Chemical  Engineer- 
ing because  of  damages  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  reason 
for  its  appearance  is  that  it  is  woven  on  what  is  known  as  the  "three- 
pick"  Terry  pattern.  In  this  pattern  the  warp  threads  are  carried  over 
two-under  one,  with  the  result  that  the  pile  loops  are  held  in  place  by 
single  filling  threads  only.  A  good  firm  pile  can  be  obtained  by 
weaving  the  pile  warp  threads  into  the  ground  fabric  for  a  distance 
of  three  or  four  filling  threads.  This  plan  is  followed  in  the  true 
Turkish  or  Osman  toweling. 


59 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


ht 


Fig.  28.  "Martex"  Toweling.  This  fabric  was  purchased  for 
the  purpose  of  comparing  a  "Marte.x"  fabric,  said  by  the  retail  merchant 
to  be  the  best  grade  of  bath  toweling,  with  the  fabric  shown  in  Fig.  27. 
Although  the  fabric  as  a  whole  was  finer  in  this  sample,  the  same 
method  of  weaving  had  been  used  to  produce  the  two. 


60 


IVeai'es 


Fig.  29.  A  V'erv  Good  Type  of  Three-pick  Terry  Fabric. 
This  fabric  was  also  purchased  to  compare  with  that  of  Fig.  27.  The 
ground  fabric  was  found  to  be  woYen  on  the  same  three-pick  plan,  but 
the  distribution  of  the  pile  warp  threads  ditTered.  In  this  exhibit  they 
are  introduced  in  groups  of  six,  at  intervals  of  six  ground  warp  threads. 
This  results  in  ridges  of  pile  that  parallel  the  warp.  "Pulling"  is 
avoided  by  the  fact  that  the  six  loops  become  so  entangled  that  they 
form  a  knot,  making  withdrawal  impossible. 


61 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

ground  warp  in  the  following  oider:  The  face-pile  waip 
threads,  one  ground  warp  thread;  the  back-pile  warp 
threads,  four  ground  warp  threads.  This  causes 
the  pile  to  occur  in  ridges  that  run  lengthwise  of 
the  fabric.  An  advantage  that  is  gained  in  this  grouping 
of  six-pile  warp  threads  together  is  that  the  six  loops 
formed  at  each  point  become  entangled  so  that  withdrawal 
of  the  thread  is  impossible.  The  beauty  of  the  finished 
fabric  is  greatest  in  Figs.  27  and  28,  but  the  utility  and 
length  of  life  of  Fig.  29  are  very  much  the  greatest. 

Weaving  Flaws. — Knots  or  heavy  threads  constitute 
another  fault  that  occurs  quite  frequently  in  the  cheaper 
fabrics  or  "seconds,"  ofifering  a  starting  point  for  very 
serious  damages.  A  knot  may  result  from  a  break  that 
has  occurred  in  the  weaving  process  and  has  been  repaired 
by  tying  the  two  ends  together;  oi  it  may  result  from  an 
entanglement  of  the  yarn.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  will 
stand  out  on  the  surface  of  the  fabric  (as  in  Fig.  30)  and 
receive  a  great  deal  more  hard  usage  than  the  threads 
about  it  in  their  less  prominent  positions.  Eventually  it 
will  be  rubbed  off  accidentally  or  picked  off  deliberately;  in 
which  case  it  leaves  behind  it  a  broken  thread.  One 
broken  thread  does  not  sound  like  a  great  misfortune 
but  it  upsets  the  nice  balance  of  stress  that  has  obtained 
in  the  fabric  and  the  neighboring  threads  are  forced  to 
bear  a  greater  burden  in  consequence.  The  final  result 
is  an  ever  enlarging  number  of  broken  threads  which 
present  the  appearance  of  Fig.  31.  It  always  happens 
that  these  broken  threads  are  confined  for  some  time  to 
one  system,  paralleling  the  thread  that  originally  con- 
tained the  knot  and  first  gave  way.  Fig.  32  is  an  enlarge- 
ment of  one  of  the  small  holes  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  31;  it 
shows  one  of  the  threads  of  the  other  system  broken, 
illustrating  the  beginning  of  enlargement  in  the  remaining 
direction. 


62 


Weaves 


Fig.  30.  Common  Flaw  in  Fabrics.  Knots  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  this  photograph  are  the  cause  of  many  damages  that  appear 
in  fabrics.  When  this  knot  is  rubbed  or  picked  off  a  thread  is  broken 
and  a  hole  is  started. 


63 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  31.     Typical  Wear  in  Sheeting.     Such  holes  as  these  will 
result  from  the. removal  of  knots  from  the  surface  of  a  fabric. 


64 


Weaves 


Fig.  32.  Photomicrogr.vph  of  Damage  Exhibited  in  Fig.  31. 
This  photomicrograph  illustrates  the  development  of  a  hole  from  a  small 
inception  like  that  suggested  under  Fig.  30.  The  damage  proceeded 
for  some  time  in  one  system  only,  but  finally  began  to  affect  the  second 
system.  This  photograph  shows  the  first  break  in  the  second  system 
in  the  development  of  this  hole. 


65 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Heavy  threads — that  is,  threads  that  are  spun  un- 
evenly so  that  occasionally  a  thickened,  loosely-spun  length 
is  encountered — (see  Fig.  Z2) — are  seen  very  often  in  the 
ess  expensive,  coarser  table  linens.  One  of  the  chief 
'ndoor  sports  of  the  diner  (of  which  he  is  quite  unconscious) 
is  to  pull  out  these  heavy  portions  as  he  sits  at  the  table 
and  converses.  This  move  is,  it  is  judged,  actuated  by  a 
desire  to  improve  the  looks  of  the  cloth,  to  change  it  from  a 
coarse,  uneven  thing  to  a  fine,  even  piece  of  workmanship. 
But,  alas,  this  subconscious  urge  toward  improvement 
merely  places  the  opening  wedge  of  destruction.  The 
damage  that  results  from  the  broken  thread  is  the  same 
in  a  table  cover  as  in  a  bed  sheet,  which  is  the  fabric 
pictured  in  Fig.  31. 

Figures  34  and  35  present  another  type  of  flaw  met 
with  in  fabrics  and  the  effect  that  washing  has  exerted 
upon  it.  Fig.  34  shows  a  weaving  defect  in  a  handker- 
chief, after  the  sizing  has  been  removed.  Just  how  serious 
this  defect  was,  is  demonstrated  by  Fig.  35,  taken  after  the 
handkerchief  had  been  laundered  eleven  times.  This 
handkerchief,  having  been  bought  for  experimental  pur- 
poses only,  was  not  used  between  washings;  had  it  received 
normal  wear  between  trips  to  the  laundry  the  efifect  of 
laundering  would  have  been  exaggerated. 

Fig.  36  illustrates  the  beginning  stages  of  a  damage 
resulting  from  another  very  common  defect  in  damask 
patterns,  both  cotton  and  linen;  that  is,  long  floats  that 
are  unconnected  with  the  development  of  the  pattern. 
The  tablecloth  that  furnished  this  illustration  was  in  very 
good  condition,  apparently  in  every  place  except  the  spot 
in  Fig.  36  that  appeared  as  a  "thin"  spot.  Examination 
disclosed  the  ends  of  threads  on  either  side  of  this  thin 
spot,  which  indicated  broken  threads.  Very  close  ex- 
amination established  the  fact  that  the  "thin"  effect  was 
produced    by  the    removal  of   those   threads  that  corre- 

66 


Weaves 


Fig.  33.  The  "Heavy  Thread"  Flaw  in  Fabrics.  The  heavy 
thread  that  occurs  in  fabrics  as  a  result  of  uneven  spinning  and  which 
is  unrelated  to  the  development  of  the  pattern  or  design  is  a  flaw  and, 
as  such,  is  unsightly  and  undesirable.  It  may  cause  damage  by  wear- 
ing out  the  finer  threads  which  cross  it  or  by  being  pulled  out  of  the 
fabric  itself,  causing  a  break  therein. 


67 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Handkerchief  sold  as  a  Second 

Note  defect  after  removal 
of  sizing 


Fig.  34.  A  Tvpic.vL  Weaving  Flaw.  A  flaw  such  as  is  pictured 
in  this  figure  places  the  fabric  bearing  it  among  the  "seconds."  These 
flaws  are  often  small  and  hidden  by  the  sizing,  but  they  always  con- 
stitute a  weak  spot  that  will  give  way  before  any  other  portion  of  the 
fabric  does.  What  happens  to  such  flaws  in  the  laundering  is  shown 
in  Fig  35. 


68 


Weaves 


Handkerchief  sold  as  a  Second 
Appearance  of  defect  after 
eleven  washings 


Fig.  35.  The  Effect  of  Laundering  on  a  Weaving  Flaw. 
The  fabric  pictured  in  Fig.  34  was  purchased  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining the  effect  of  laundering  on  weaving  defects.  After  being 
laundered  eleven  times,  without  being  used  between  trips  through  the 
laundry,  the  defect  had  assumed  the  appearance  shown  above.  Had 
the  handkerchief  received  customary  usage  between  launderings,  the 
damage  would  have  enlarged  with  greater  rapidity. 


69 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  36.  Damaged  Table  Linen.  This  damage  showed  up  as  a 
"thin"  spot.  Examination  demonstrated  this  thinness  to  result  from 
the  fact  that  every  fifth  thread  had  been  removed  for  a  distance  of  half 
an  inch.  The  reason  that  these  threads  had  been  removed  proved  to 
be  that  they  had  never  been  incorporated  into  the  fabric  at  the  spot, 
but  had  been  "floated"  for  a  space.  The  thread  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  spot  is  the  last  one  to  withstand  the  wear  and  connects  the  former 
condition  of  this  area  of  fabric  with  its  present  condition. 


70 


Weaves 


l«ii||RPRPI^iPpni|WPPPTiPf^^ 


'  A.  .i    f-   *       '  '  '  ' 


Fig.  37.  Damaged  Table  Linen.  This  is  a  smaller  "thin"  spot 
that  occurred  in  the  same  cloth  with  that  shown  in  Fig.  36.  The  thin 
spot  in  this  photograph  is  not  such  important  data  as  are  the  long 
floats  that  occur  in  several  areas  about  it.  This  evidence  substantiated 
the  story  suggested  by  the  one  remaining  float  in  Fig.  36. 


71 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

sponded  to  the  broken  ends,  which  allowed  more  light  to 
filter  through  the  cloth.  The  reason  why  these  threads 
were  broken  and  why  none  of  the  others  was,  is  explained 
by  the  one  thread  that  remains  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
spot.  It  is  nearly  worn  through  by  friction  but  it  still 
remains  as  a  continuous  thread  and  offers  proof  of  the 
conclusion  that  originally  these  threads  had  been  "floated" 
for  a  distance  of  one-third  inch  or  32  thread  diameters, 
instead  of  covering  that  distance  in  the  regular  "over-four- 
under-one"  stitch  used  in  the  cloth.  This  mistake  is  quite 
patently  due  to  a  moment  of  poor  operation  on  the  part  of 
the  loom. 

Fig.  37  shows  another  spot  that  was  found  in  support 
of  this  conclusion.  The  thin  spot  itself  furnished  very 
little  contributing  evidence,  but  the  surrounding  areas  of 
long  unnecessary  floats  were  just  the  proof  that  was  most 
desired.  Flaws  of  this  type  are  watched  for  as  the  fabric  is 
woven  and  material  that  contains  them  is  considered  of 
inferior  quality  and  classed  as  "seconds."  Legitimately 
the  "seconds"  do  not  command  as  high  a  price  as  "firsts," 
but  the  dressing  that  is  given  damasks  is  of  a  type  to 
render  these  flaws  practically  unnoticeable.  This  state- 
ment is  not  meant  to  imply  that  the  manufacturer  de- 
liberately covers  them  up.  It  merely  states  that  they  are 
covered  up  and  suggests  that  this  is  done  by  a  process  that 
we  demand  to  be  given  the  fabrics  we  purchase,  and  that 
it  may  be  an  aid  to  dishonest  selling  or  indifTerent  pur- 
chasing. 

Fig.  38  represents  a  type  of  damage  that  is,  at  first 
glance,  hard  to  recognize  as  the  result  of  improper  weaving. 
This  type  of  damage  can  occur  in  any  grade  of  fabric  and  is 
not  dependent  upon  the  length  or  kind  of  fiber  used,  the 
degree  of  spinning,  the  weight  of  fabric  produced,  or  any 
other  of  the  faults  that  have  been  found  to  be  due  to  the 
intimate  parts  of  the  fabric  itself.     Instead,  the  fault  lies 

72 


Weaves 


mtm 


Fig.  38.  Shrink.\ge  in  Table  Linen.  The  shrinkage  is  confined 
in  this  exhibit  to  a  group  of  warp  threads  near  the  selvedge.  Such 
localized  damage  can  not  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  improper  launder- 
ing even  when  one  is  ignorant  of  the  real  cause.  The  real  cause  is  that 
the  affected  threads  have  been  held  under  greater  tension  on  the  warp 
beam  than  the  other  warp  threads  have.  This  tension  was  continued 
during  the  finishing  process  until  the  sizing  had  dried  and  a  straight 
fabric  was  insured.  Laundering  has  merely  removed  this  tension  and 
has  permitted  the  threads  to  assume  their  normal  positions. 


73 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


^i    '♦^T7 


^^'V^l^r    "l^ 


^f 


3:i 


'3! 


Fig.  39.  A  "Scratch-up."  The  thread  end  appearing  in  this 
figure  is  one  end  of  a  warp  thread  that  has  broken  during  weaving. 
The  original  course  of  this  thread  is  that  taken  across  the  page;  after 
breaking,  the  thread  end  was  carried  across  the  fabric  with  the  filling. 
Such  a  condition  constitutes  the  damage  known  to  the  fabric  manu- 
facturer as  a  "scratch-up."  It  will  be  seen  that  the  affected  warp 
thread  has  been  removed  beyond  the  point  where  the  break  occurred. 


74 


Weaves 

with  the  mechanical  setting-up  of  the  threads  from  which 
the  fabric  has  been  w^oven.  The  warp  threads,  indicated 
by  the  arrow,  and  which  are  several  inches  shorter  than 
the  others  in  the  tablecloth,  have  shrunken  because  they 
had  been  held  under  greater  tension  than  the  unshrunken 
warp  threads  duiing  the  weaving  process.  When  removed 
from  the  loom,  the  cloth  was  sized  and  finished  so  that  they 
appeared  as  long  as  the  whole  cloth;  but,  on  laundering, 
the  strain  that  had  been  exerted  on  them  was  removed  and 
they  were  permitted  to  resume  their  true  proportions. 
This  shrinkage  occurs  legitimately  in  all  fabrics  to  a  slight 
extent;  but  where  it  occurs  to  the  extent  demonstrated  in 
the  photograph  under  discussion,  it  is  a  condition  that 
could  have  been  avoided  by  the  manufacturer  and  is,  there- 
fore, his  responsibility. 

Another  fabric  that  has  caused  considerable  worry  for 
the  launderer  is  the  heavy  cotton  material  called  Bedford 
cord.  This  cloth  is  formed  of  cords  or  welts  that  lie  side 
by  side,  parallel  to  the  selvedge.  These  welts  are  made  to 
stand  out  in  relatively  high  relief  by  the  employment  of 
padding  threads  which  are  held  in  place  by  certain  of  the 
fillingthreads  that  are  carried  across  behind  them.  The  so- 
called  damage  that  appears  in  this  material  occurs  in  the 
padding  threads  which  loop  out  between  the  threads 
which  pass  behind  them.  Such  a  condition  can  not  be 
avoided  in  a  heavily  loaded  commercial  wash  wheel  when 
a  fabric  of  this  type  is  being  washed.  Had  the 
padding  threads  been  backed  by  a  true  fabric,  made 
like  the  facing,  or  in  other  words  had  the  material  been 
made  "double-faced"  by  the  introduction  of  extra  warp 
threads  to  engage  the  filling  threads  that  cross  behind  tKe 
padding,  such  a  condition  would  have  been  impossible. 
Double-faced  fabrics  are,  however,  expensive;  more 
expensive  than  the  average  person  can  afford  for  an 
everyday  wash  fabric.     Therefore,  the  trouble  with  Bed' 

75 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  40.  Towel  Crash.  This  is  a  portion  of  a  crash  towel  that 
appeared  to  be  a  good  grade  of  unbleached  linen  crash.  Seven  hundred 
of  these  towels,  owned  by  a  linen  supply  company,  were  laundered  be- 
fore distribution  and  failed  to  survive  the  process.  The  failure  was  con- 
fined to  the  filling  threads  which,  on  examination,  proved  to  be  made  of 
paper  stock.  This  material,  when  spun  into  threads,  has  the  appear- 
ance of  coarse  linen  and  is  quite  strong  when  dry,  but  has  practically  no 
strength  when  wet. 


76 


Weaves 

ford  cords  will  continue  to  occur  unless  the  launderer 
changes  the  method  used  in  handling  this  type  of 
fabric.  It  is  possible,  and  also  advisable,  to  wash  gar- 
ments made  from  Bedford  cord  by  hand  or  in  small 
vacuum-type  washers  wherein  the  mechanical  rubbing  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Use  of  Poor  Materials. — The  damages  so  far  discussed 
have  been  due  to  weaknesses  in  construction  rather  than  to 
weaknesses  of  material.  That  weakness  of  material  does 
occur,  however,  is  evidenced  by  Figs.  40  and  41.  Fig.  40 
is  a  reproduction  of  what  appears  to  be  a  good  grade  of 
crash.  But  700  towels  made  from  this  material  fell  to 
pieces  when  laundered  for  the  first  time  in  preparation  for 
distribution  by  a  towel  supply  company.  On  examination 
the  failures  proved  to  be  confined  to  the  filling  only.  It 
was  found  that  the  warp  was  a  good  three-ply  cotton  thread 
that  would  stand  heavy  wear,  but  that  the  filling  was  noth- 
ing more  than  "cooked  rope"  or  paper  stock.  Cooked 
rope  is  a  term  used  by  paper  manufacturers  to  designate 
the  material  that  results  from  cooking  jute  and  hemp 
fibers  in  an  alkaline  bath.  Jute  and  hemp  fibers  are  strong 
but  when  untreated  or  "uncooked"  are  quite  harsh.  This 
characteristic  is  very  evident  in  burlap,  a  fabric  made  from 
these  untreated  fibers,  and  is  due  to  the  large  amount  of 
resinous  material  present  in  the  fibers.  Cooking  with  an 
alkaline  material  removes  the  resin  content,  but  in  doing 
so  it  also  reduces  the  strength  of  the  fibers.  There  seems 
to  be  a  definite  relation  between  the  amount  of  resin  pres- 
ent and  the  strength  of  the  fiber,  because  complete  removal 
of  this  material  leaves  the  fibers  worthless  as  textile  ma- 
terial. The  weakness  of  the  threads  made  from  "cooked 
rope"  or  paper  stock  is  not  evident  when  they  are  dry  but 
is  immediately  apparent  in  the  presence  of  moisture.  This 
is  a  phenomenon  that  has  been  made  familiar  to  us  all  in 
our  experiences  with  heavy  wrapping  papers. 

77 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  41.  Failure  in  Artificial  Silk.  This  shirt,  in  cotton  warp 
and  artificial  silk  filling,  shows  a  failure  in  the  sleeve  only.  No  accom- 
panying tenderness  appears  in  any  other  part  of  the  shirt  to  suggest 
that  the  damage  has  occurred  during  laundering.  The  tenderness  has 
been  caused  by  mistreatment  of  the  fabric  while  it  was  still  in  the  piece 
at  some  time  during  the  finishing  process.  The  fact  that  the  tenderness 
is  confined  to  the  left  sleeve  is  explained  as  the  result  of  using  two  pieces 
of  cloth  to  cut  the  garment.     One  piece  was  good,  the  other  was  weak. 


78 


JVeaves 

Supplementing  this  towel  exhibit  and  further  exem- 
plifying the  tendency  of  the  manufacturers  of  textiles  to- 
wards adulteration,  is  a  bath  rug.  This  rug,  gieen  and 
white  and  brown,  in  a  rather  pleasing  mottled  effect,  was 
evidently  bought  for  a  cotton  and  wool  mixture.  Launder- 
ing, however,  had  reduced  it  to  a  sad  state  of  disintegra- 
tion, the  cause  of  which  lay  not  in  the  laundry  or  in  the 
laundering  process  but  rather  in  the  composition  of  the 
article  itself,  as  discovered  through  a  critical  examination. 
Such  examination  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  warp  was 
cotton,  but  that  the  filling  which  at  first  glance  appeared 
to  be  composed  of  three-fourths  and  cotton  one-fourth 
wool  was  really  three-fourths  twisted  paper  and  one-fourth 
wool.  The  paper  was  of  a  soft  unglazed  grade  which  twisted 
readily  into  an  even  pliable  rope,  giving  an  effect  quite 
similar  to  that  of  loosely  spun  cotton  thread  when  woven 
into  a  fabric  and  examined  only  perfunctorily  by  the  pur- 
chaser. It  was  entirely  in  keeping  with  the  quality  of  this 
material  that  the  wool  content  should  be  introduced  in  the 
form  of  loosely  spun  shoddy  yarn.  In  a  manner  the  per- 
spicacity exhibited  by  the  manufacturer  in  taking  this 
action  is  admirable — it  can  at  least  be  said  that  no  good 
wool  was  wasted  in  the  production  of  these  articles. 

Fig.  41  shows  a  shirt,  of  which  only  one  sleeve  is  dam- 
aged, but  which  has  been  reduced  to  shreds  in  this  portion 
during  the  laundering  process.  No  other  portion  of  the 
shirt  is  affected,  not  even  the  cuff  on  the  damaged  sleeve. 
Examination  showed  that  the  fabric  of  the  garment  that 
had  remained  whole  was  a  good  piece  of  material  of  cotton 
warp  and  artificial  silk  filling,  and  showed  no  evidence  of 
chemical  action.  The  damaged  sleeve,  on  the  contrary, 
although  of  similar  construction  (that  is,  of  cotton  warp 
and  artificial  silk  filling,  in  the  same  pattern)  showed  evi- 
dence of  chemical  action.  There  is  no  method  known  to 
the  chemist  by  which  complete  destruction  of  one  definite 

79 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

portion  of  a  garment  can  be  brought  about  without  some 
small  area  of  damage  appearing  in  some  other  portion  of 
the  garment.  In  this  case,  had  chemical  action  taken  place 
after  the  garment  had  been  assembled,  traces  of  this  action 
would  have  been  found  at  the  left  shoulder  and  cufif.  On 
the  contrary,  such  evidence  was  confined  completely  to  the 
fabric  of  the  sleeve  proper.  The  explanation  for  this  dam- 
age is  mistreatment  of  the  yarn  or  of  the  pieces  in  the  fac- 
tory. Two  pieces  of  the  same  pattern  have  been  used  to 
make  the  garment,  one  being  good  and  strong,  and  the 
other  being  poor  and  weak. 

In  connection  with  this  discussion  it  is  well  to  state 
that  the  launderer  may  readily  ascertain  the  extent  of  a 
damage  of  this  type  by  testing  the  tensile  strength  of  the 
fabric  at  various  parts  of  the  garment.  This  test  can  be 
made  qualitatively  by  grasping  the  fabric  firmly  between 
the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of  both  hands  and  applying  a 
steady  strain  to  the  threads  by  pulling  the  hands  apart, 
keeping  the  threads  straight  during  the  process.  Such  a 
test  was  all  that  was  needed  to  establish  the  fact  that  the 
damage  in  Fig.  41  was  confined  to  the  fabric  of  the  left 
sleeve. 

The  finish  that  is  applied  to  a  fabric  by  the  manu- 
facturer before  he  permits  it  to  be  marketed  is  a  factor 
that  is  of  greatest  importance  to  the  consumer  and  the 
launderer.  By  means  of  the  art  of  finishing,  a  fabric 
may  be  made  to  appear  decidedly  more  desirable  than  it 
actually  is.  Cotton  and  linen  fabrics  are  loaded  with 
excess  starch  or  even  clay  to  give  them  weight  and  body; 
this  weighting  is  removed  in  the  first  laundering  and  the 
impression  is  left  with  the  owner  of  the  article  that  the 
laundering  process  is  hard  on  fabrics.  Similar  methods 
are  used  with  silk  fabrics,  but  in  this  type  of  fabric  the 
weighting  material  is  more  often  a  salt  of  tin  than  any 
other  compound.     When  excessive   amounts  of   tin   salts 

80 


IV  eaves 

are  used  the  threads  lose  their  pHabiUty  and  break  very 
quickly  under  the  stress  of  wear.  The  heavy  silk  dresses 
of  our  grandmothers,  that  stood  alone  and  wore  a  lifetime, 
are  not  duplicated  today  at  popular  prices.  The  reduction 
of  the  cost  of  silk  fabrics  means  an  equal  reduction  of  the 
amount  of  silk  used;  the  resultant  loss  of  weight  is  made 
up  in  weighting  material.  Therefore,  when  a  modern 
silk  fabric  splits,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  original 
cost  and  the  length  and  degree  of  service  it  has  rendered 
before  placing  the  blame  for  damage  to  the  credit  of  any 
one  influence. 


81 


CHAPTER  III. 

Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage. 

A  PERUSAL  of  the  preceding  chapter  might  lead  one 
to  the  beUef  that  all  the  troubles  of  the  laundry  were 
due  to  flaws  in  weaving  and  mistakes  of  the  manufacturer 
and  that  claims  could  be  readily  disposed  of  by  referring 
them  to  the  manufacturer.  Such  is  not  the  case,  how- 
ever, because  the  user  of  the  garment  and  the  launderer 
must  each  come  in  for  his  share  of  the  responsibility  in 
the  conservation  of  the  handiwork  of  the  textile  producer. 

There  are  innumerable  ways  in  which  a  garment  may 
be  damaged  both  by  chemical  and  mechanical  action,  during 
use  and  laundering.  This  chapter  will  be  confined  to  a 
discussion  of  the  mechanical  possibilities  of  damage.  The 
chemical  possibilites  are  considered  later  in  detail  in 
Chapter  V  (page  98). 

During  wear  many  things  are  apt  to  occur  of  which 
the  wearer  may  or  may  not  be  aware  and  which  soon  slip 
the  memory.  The  use  of  pins  in  garments  offers  many 
opportunities  for  introducing  rents;  the  clothing  may  be 
snagged  on  any  roughness  of  furniture.  Maybe  the  cloth 
is  only  caught  by  a  few  threads  which  are  carefully  re- 
moved before  they  are  completely  severed,  but  at  the 
least  estimation  the  damage  done  is  great.  It  will  require 
only  a  little  strain,  such  as  the  weight  of  the  fabric  itself 
when  wet,  to  break  the  weakened  threads. 

Table  linens  are  subject  to  cuts,  which  may  occur 
from  cutting  bread  at  the  table  without  using  a  bread 
board.  (This  is  not,  of  course,  the  general  practice,  but 
it  occurs  in  every  home  in  moments  of  haste  or  carelessness.) 
Or  the  table  knives  may  be  used  to  draw  line-pictures  on 

82 


Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage 

the  soft  padded  surface  of  the  dinner  table,  in  which  case 
the  damage  done  may  not  be  intense  enough  to  show  up 
immediately,  but  will  always  be  present.  Reckless  chil- 
dren can  cause  damages  in  many  ways  that  cannot  be 
proved  on  countless  occasions  because  of  the  absolute 
ignorance  of  the  occurrence  in  which   their  elders  remain. 

Another  source  of  cuts  in  linens,  this  time  in  toilet 
towels,  is  razor  blades.  Many  men  who  shave  themselves 
use  a  towel  to  dry  their  razor  blades  on  after  the  operation 
is  over.  In  spite  of  careful  manipulation,  this  use  of  a 
fabric  exposes  it  to  the  danger  of  being  cut,  and  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  a  cut  of  some  degree  is  made.  This  practice 
has  caused  so  much  trouble  in  hotel  linens  that  many 
hotels  have  begun  to  furnish  special  cloths  for  this  purpose 
with  the  request  that  they  be  used  in  preference  to  the  face 
towels. 

Figs.  42,  43,  44  and  45  illustrate  the  appearance  of 
cuts  in  fabric  both  while  still  distinct  and  after  they  have 
been  laundered.  In  Fig.  42  the  cut  has  affected  only  one 
system  of  threads;  Fig.  43  shows  a  diagonal  cut  that 
affects  both  warp  and  filling.  After  laundering.  Fig.  42, 
will  appear  like  Fig.  44,  while  Fig.  43  will  appear  like 
Fig.  45.  It  is  quite  apparent  from  even  a  casual  obser- 
vation of  these  photographs  that  laundering  merely 
accentuates  this  type  of  damage  as  it  does  in  all  cases  of 
failures  that  are  not  corrected  before  delivery  to  the 
launderer. 

Bed  springs,  finished  with  sharp  ends  protruding  and 
provided  with  no  covering  to  protect  them  from  dust  or 
the  bed  clothes  from  being  snagged;  clothes  chutes  not  as 
smooth  of  finish  as  is  desirable;  mice,  having,  as  they  do, 
free  access  to  every  part  of  the  house ;  these  are  only  a  few 
of  the  ways  in  which  fabrics  may  receive  the  damage 
which  only  appears  after  the  clothes  have  been  returned 
from  the  laundry,  and  for  which  the  user  is  to  blame 
rather  than  the  launderer  or  the  laundry  process.     Care 

83 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


K    r  •  * 


•  « 


^..•^  »>  f  ■  * 

"%.  IV  .41  ^-  -»  iht-^i|r  1   •  ^ 


Fig.  42.  A  Cut,  Running  Parallel  to  O^ne  System  of  Threads. 
This  photomicrograph  shows  the  characteristics  of  a  cut  in  which  only 
one  system  of  threads  is  implicated.  The  blunt,  even  ends  of  the  threads 
are  very  typical  of  a  damage  that  has  resulted  from  the  action  of  a 
sharp  edge. 


84 


Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage 


Fig.  43.  A  Diagonal  Cut.  The  diagonal  direction  of  this 
damage  places  it  immediately  in  the  class  of  mechanical  damages.  The 
blunt,  clean  cut  ends  of  the  threads  modifies  this  general  classification  to 
the  extent  that  the  damage  is  specifically  called  a  cut  without  hesitation. 


85 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

taken  on  the  part  of  the  housewife  to  mend  everything 
before  sending  thQ  goods  to  a  commercial  plant  would 
eliminate  many  of  the  complaints  to  which  the  launderer 
has  to  give  audience. 

Another  type  of  failure  in  garments  that  the  laundry 
is  usually  unjustly  blamed  for  results  from  poor  tailoring 
methods.  One  of  the  most  interesting  cases  of  this  type  of 
damage  ever  submitted  to  the  Department  of  Chemical 
Engineering  for  examination  was  a  Palm  Beach  suit  of 
a  heavy  grade  of  pongee  in  which  the  only  damages  ap- 
peared along  the  seams  where  the  fabric  had  pulled  out  of 
the  stitching  in  many  places.  Examination  disclosed  that 
the  reason  this  pulling  had  occurred  was  that  not  sufficient 
seam  allowance  had  been  made.  Pongee  is  easily  frayed 
and  if  permanence  is  desired  for  seams  made  in  it,  the  raw 
edges  must  be  reinforced  against  fraying  by  binding  or 
overcasting,  or  unusually  big  seam  allowances  must  be 
made  so  that  fraying  will  not  endanger  the  seam.  The 
suit  under  consideration,  wherever  pulling  had  occurred, 
showed  seam  allowances  of  one-fourth  inch,  with  no 
attempt  made  to  prevent  fraying. 

In  the  laundry  the  possibilities  of  mechanical  damage 
lie  in  the  chance  of  buttons  being  caught  in  crevices  of  the 
cylinder  of  both  the  washing  machine  and  the  drying 
tumbler;  of  snagging  on  pins  that  have  become  caught  in 
these  machines;  or  on  rough  places  in  the  wheels  that 
result  from  unfinished  cutting  of  the  parts,  or  from  wear 
of  the  wooden  parts  that  has  exposed  sharp  corners  of  metal 
parts;  and  by  careless  handling  of  the  garments.  Every 
one  knows  that  carelessness  is  possible  and  probable  under 
present  labor  conditions,  in  every  plant;  therefore,  the 
greatest  care  on  the  part  of  the  laundryowner  to  instill 
respect  for  fabrics  into  the  individual  employee  and  in- 
sistance  on  the  observation  of  care  in  handling  them  is  the 
only  remedy  for  this  group  of  damages,  which  is  in  truth,  a 
group  of  avoidable  damages. 

86 


Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage 


*tf^0$^ 


Fig.  44.  The  Result  of  Laundering  a  Cut  Affecting  One 
System  of  Threads.  The  sharply  characteristic  features  of  a  cut  are 
no  longer  present  in  this  photomicrograph  which  presents  the  same 
damage  that  appears  in  Fig.  46.  The  difference  that  occurs  in  the  two 
figures  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fabric  has  been  washed  between 
photographs. 


87 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  45.  The  Result  of  Laundering  a  Diagonal  Cut.  This 
figure  shows  that  laundering  is  nearly  as  effective  in  removing  the 
characteristic  features  of  a  diagonal  cut  as  it  is  in  removing  them  from 
a  cut  that  parallels  the  threads.  It  is  often  possible  to  hold  such  a 
spot  to  the  light,  however,  and  discover  traces  of  its  diagonal  character 
that  are  still  too  evident  to  dispute. 


Mechanical  Sources  of  Damage 

Mechanical  damages  of  any  source  are  characterized 
by  features  that  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  features 
of  chemical  damages  in  the  laboratory  and  it  is  an  easy 
task  for  one  to  learn  these  characteristic  features  and  apply 
them  to  the  cases  of  damage  as  they  arise  within  the  plant. 
If  the  cooperation  for  which  we  hope  is  extended  by  those 
who  receive  copies  of  this  book,  claims  of  this  type  may  be 
equitably  handled  and  an  important  objective  of  the 
laundrv  industrv  will  have  been  attained. 


89 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Colored  Garments. 

The  Relationship  Between  Dyes  and  Laundering* 

OOME  familiarity  with  dyes,  with  their  manufacture  and 
^  appUcation  to  fabrics,  is  of  the  utmost  importance  if 
launderers  hope  to  handle  colored  garments  successfully  in 
the  power  laundry.  Of  course,  a  man  may  trust  to  luck 
and  success  may  attend  his  efforts  for  a  fair  percentage  of 
the  time,  but  the  day  always  comes  when  the  combination 
presaging  failure  obtains  and  he  is  unable  to  prevent  its 
occurrence  because  he  does  not  recognize  his  danger.  And 
one  mistake  or  failure  on  the  part  of  the  launderer  always 
overshadows  in  the  mind  of  the  public  several  successes; 
which  is  the  way  of  human  nature. 

No  industry  stands  absolutely  alone  without  some 
alliance  to  other  industries,  and  the  man  who  is  well 
informed  concerning  all  things  related  to  his  business  will 
be  able  to  realize  his  limitations  in  all  directions  and  so 
avoid  disaster.  The  expression  "well  informed"  does  not 
presuppose  knowledge  to  the  degree  of  expertness;  it 
merely  suggests  such  information  as  is  necessary  to  an 
adequate  appreciation  of  the  application  of  all  minor 
interests  to  one  major  interest.  It  is  our  endeavor  to  set 
forth  in  this  chapter  that  portion  of  the  vast  subject  of 
dyes  and  dyeing  which  is  pertinent  to  the  laundry  industry. 

*The  authors  desire  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to  Professor  L.  A.  Olney,  of 
the  Lowell  Textile  School,  and  Dr.  J.  Merritt  Matthews,  of  the  Grasselli  Chemical  Com- 
pany, for  help  received  in  connection  with  this  chapter;  their  ability  to  present  the  sub- 
ject of  dyes  in  so  simple  and  readable  a  manner  is  largely  due  to  the  clearness  of  per- 
ception gained  through  contact  with  these  men.  They  are  also  indebted  to  the  Ameri- 
can Dyes  Institute,  which,  by  its  generous  co-operation,  made  possible  a  criticism  of 
this  work  before  publication,  thus  ensuring  accuracy  as  well  as  simplicity  of  statement. 

90 


Colored  Garments 

There  are  two  general  types  of  dyes,  viz.,  natural  and 
artificial.  Natural  dyes  are  coloring  materials  that  are 
produced  by  the  natural  functioning  and  growth  of  certain 
plants  and  animals  and  comprise  the  first  dyes  known 
to  man.  Artificial  dyes  are  the  result  of  increased  chemical 
knowledge  and  can  be  manufactured  with  so  much  greater 
ease  and  accuracy  to  produce  such  a  greater  variety  of 
colors  that  they  have  come  to  replace  the  natural  dyes 
almost  completely.  There  are  two  ways  of  classifying  dyes, 
each  of  which  is  of  interest  and  use  to  a  certain  group  of 
men.  The  one  that  the  chemists  use,  which  is  based  upon 
the  color-producing  groups  present  in  dyestuffs,  is  the 
one  most  recently  developed  and  is  admitted  to  be  the 
better  because  it  is  more  logical  and  can  be  applied  to  the 
present  day  mass  of  dyeing  materials  with  less  confusion; 
however,  the  use  of  this  classification  requires  a  very 
intimate  knowledge  of  chemistry  that  can  be  acquired  only 
by  long  and  arduous  study.  The  second  classification, 
which  is  based  upon  the  affinities  of  the  dyes  for  and  the 
methods  of  their  application  to  animal  and  vegetable 
fibers,  is  much  more  intelligible  to  the  layman,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  under  this  classification  one  dye  may 
appear  in  more  than  one  group,  due  to  its  capacity  for 
being  applied  to  different  fibers  under  diff^erent  conditions. 

This  classification  divides  the  dyestuffs  according  to 
their  reactions  and  methods  of  application  in  the  following 
manner : — 

Direct  dyes. 
Mordant  dyes. 
Vat  dyes. 
Sulfur  dyes. 
Aniline  dyes. 

Direct  Dyes. — The  dyes  of  this  class  are  taken  out  of 
the  dye  bath  directly  onto  the  fiber.     According  to  the 

91 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

character  of  the  fiber  being  dyed  the  dye  bath  may  be 
acid,  alkaUne  or  neutral,  but  in  any  case  the  process  of 
dyeing  is  brought  about  by  the  actual  absorption  of  the 
dye  by  the  fiber.  These  dyes  are  all  "salts"  in  the  chemical 
sense  that  they  are  products  of  chemical  action  between 
acid  and  alkali  groups,  but  their  nature  is  more  complex 
than  the  ordinary  salt  with  which  we  are  familiar  and 
many  of  these  salts  possess  acid  or  alkaline  radicals  in 
addition  to  the  ones  that  are  involved  in  the  reactions  that 
produce  the  dyes.  Those  "salts"  or  dyes  that  possess  an 
acid  radical  or  group  of  this  kind  are  called  acid  dyestuffs; 
those  that  possess  an  alkaline  gioup  are  called  basic  dye- 
stuffs;  those  that  possess  neither  an  acid  nor  an  alkaline 
group  are  called  salt  dyestuffs. 

The  acid  dyestuffs  dye  animal  fibers  directly  from  an 
acidified  bath,  forming  direct  chemical  combinations  with 
the  fiber  material.  Silk  and  wool,  being  nitrogenous  or 
protein  materials,  are  characterized  by  both  an  acid  and  a 
basic  group.  The  acid  group  of  acid  dyestuffs  reacts  with 
the  basic  group  of  the  fibers  just  as  the  acid  group  of  any 
simple  acid  reacts  with  the  basic  group  of  a  simple  alkali  to 
form  a  salt.  In  the  case  of  reaction  between  wool  and  a 
dyestuff,  the  product  of  reaction  is  insoluble  in  acid  or  neu- 
tral solutions,  but  in  alkaline  solutions  the  attraction 
between  the  dyestuff  and  the  alkali  of  the  bath  is  greater 
than  the  attraction  between  the  dyestuff  and  the  alkaline 
group  of  the  fiber  and  a  loosening  of  the  dye  results.  This  is 
true  because  the  alkaline  group  of  the  fiber  possesses  less  defi- 
nite alkaline  characteristics  than  the  alkaline  group  of  the 
solution.  Vegetable  fibers  do  not  possess  the  complexity  of 
form  that  enables  the  animal  fibers  to  produce  insoluble 
compounds  with  the  acid  dyestuffs,  so  where  washing  is 
desirable  this  type  of  dye  should  not  be  chosen  to  dye 
cotton  and  linen  fabrics;  the  use  of  acid  dyestuffs  on  cotton 
explains  why  some  of  the  cheaper  fabrics  loose  their  color 
on  being  placed  into  water. 


92 


Colored  Garments 

The  basic  dyestuffs,  possessing  an  alkaline  group,  react 
with  the  acid  group  of  animal  fibers  to  form  a  compound 
that  is  insoluble  in  neutral  or  alkaline  baths  but  which  are 
stripped  from  the  fibers  to  some  extent  by  treatment  with 
an  acid  solution.  This  stripping  is  accomplished  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  stripping  of  an  acid  dyestuff  with  an 
alkaline  solution,  through  the  greater  attraction  of  the 
acid  of  the  solution  for  the  dyestuff  than  the  attraction  of 
the  acid  radical  of  the  fiber.  This  class  of  dyestuffs  is  also 
undesirable  for  dyeing  vegetable  fibers,  only  staining  theni 
in  a  superficial  manner  that  is  corrected  by  simple  treat- 
ment with  water.  The  action  of  basic  dyestuffs  on  cotton 
and  silk  is  to  be  seen  in  the  laundry  quite  often  when  the 
silk  ribbons  used  as  trimmings  for  lingerie  all  come  out 
of  the  blueing  bath  irrevocably  blue,  w^hile  the  cotton  fabric 
is  still  a  pure  snowy  white. 

The  salt  dyestuff  differs  from  the  acid  and  basic  dye- 
stuffs  in  that  they  dye  a  vegetable  fiber  direct  from  a  neu- 
tral or  alkaline  solution.  They  also  dye  animal  fibers  in 
acid,  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions.  The  chemical  reason 
for  this  difference  in  action  toward  vegetable  fibers  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  determined  as  yet,  so  we  who  are 
mainly  interested  in  the  action  need  only  accept  the  fact 
as  it  stands.  Whether  dyed  upon  animal  or  vegetable 
fibers  this  class  of  dye  tends  to  "run"  or  "bleed"  in  slightly 
alkaline  solutions. 

The  whole  class  of  direct  dyes  is  unsatisfactory  for  use 
on  wash  goods,  (where  this  term  signifies  cotton  and  linen 
fabrics),  and  will  cause  trouble  in  varying  degrees  for  the 
launderer  when  encountered.  There  is  some  little  conso- 
lation, however,  in  the  fact  that  they  are  seldom  used  today 
on  other  than  the  cheapest  fabrics,  and  such  fabrics  are 
still  more  seldom  purchased  by  the  class  of  people  who 
patronize  the  power  laundry.  When  they  are  encountered 
on  cotton  fabrics  there  is  no  method  of  laundering  that  will 
not  affect  them.     It  sometimes  happens  that  the  addition 


93 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

of  some  salt  to  the  water  makes  them  less  soluble,  but  the 
salts  that  are  accessible  are  seldom  of  very  great  assistance 
in  this  manner  and  those  salts  that  are  of  assistance  are 
too  hard  to  use  to  make  them  desirable  for  the  launderer. 
When  these  dyes  appear  on  wool  or  silk  fabrics  they  should 
be  laundered  with  neutral  soap  and  warm  water,  the  stand- 
ard process  recommended  by  the  Department  of  Chemical 
Engineering  of  the  Laundr>'owners  National  Association. 
Therefore,  if  the  recommendations  of  this  Department  are 
carried  out  the  trouble  experienced  with  this  class  of  dyes 
will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

It  has  been  stated  earlier  in  this  chapter  that  one  dye- 
stuflf  may  be  listed  under  more  than  one  class-heading, 
according  to  the  method  of  application  used  and  the  affin- 
ity that  the  dyestufif  exhibits  for  the  fiber  under  the  existing 
conditions.  Some  of  the  dyestufifs,  notably  the  basic  dye- 
stuffs,  that  under  the  conditions  described  for  direct  dyes 
are  not  fast  on  the  vegetable  fibers  become  exceedingly  fast 
and  desirable  when  the  fabric  is  given  a  "mordanting" 
treatment  before  dyeing.  A  mordant  is  a  material  that 
reacts  with  the  dye  to  form  an  insoluble  compound;  when 
a  fabric,  with  which  no  reaction  occurs  by  direct  dyeing, 
is  first  impregnated  with  a  mordant  and  then  treated  with 
the  dye,  the  insoluble  compound  is  formed  on  the  fabric. 

The  mordants  used  in  the  application  of  these  dyes 
are  albumin;  acids  and  acid  salts,  which  include  the  iron, 
aluminum  and  chromium  salts  of  the  strong  acids  (hydro- 
chloric and  sulfuric).  The  mordant  used  often  has  a  de- 
cided effect  on  the  color  produced;  for  instance,  alizerine 
gives  a  red  color  with  aluminum  mordant  and  a  purple 
color  with  an  iron  mordant,  while  certain  other  red  dyes 
are  changed  to  dark  blue  or  black  by  chromium  salts.  In 
cases  where  whole  pieces  of  material  are  dyed  a  solid  color 
the  mordant  may  be  applied  in  a  "first  bath,"  the  dyestuff 
being  applied  separately;  or  through  later  developments, 
the  mordant  may  be  added  to  the  dyebath  itself  and  the 

94 


Colored  Garments 

dyeing  process  completed  in  one  operation.  Printed  calicos 
are  prepared  by  printing  the  dyestuff  on  the  fabric  in  the 
form  of  a  thick  paste,  which  is  then  steamed  into  the  cloth. 
The  cloth  may  be  treated  with  a  solution  of  the  mordant 
either  before  or  after  this  process.  Several  exhibits  of 
striped  shirts  in  which  the  color  has  faded  only  in  spots  and 
has  been  unaccompanied  by  tendering  even  in  the  slightest 
degree,  have  been  examined  in  the  laboratory  of  the  authors. 
The  cause  of  this  uneven  fading  has  been  that  the  mordant 
has  been  unevenly  applied  to  the  printed  fabric  and  only 
portions  of  the  pattern  have  been  properly  "fixed"  on  the 
fibers. 

The  salts  used  as  mordants  are  all  salts  of  strong  acids 
and  under  certain  conditions  decompose  to  give  the  free 
acids  which  are  capable  of  tendering  the  fabric.  Proper 
dyeing  methods  recognize  these  possibilities  and  so  far  as 
possible  eliminate  the  provocative  conditions;  it  often  hap- 
pens that  even  in  the  best  of  plants  some  slips  will  occur 
that  will  pass  unnoticed,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  will  be  put 
on  the  market  that  is  markedly  defective.  Figs.  51  and  52 
demonstrate  a  case  where  this  is  true.  The  black  threads 
used  in  this  shirting  cloth  were  dyed  in  the  yarn  and  later 
woven  into  the  fabric.  The  dyeing  process,  through  im- 
proper or  careless  application,  affected  the  tendering  of 
these  threads  to  the  extent  that  the  friction  of  wear  alone 
was  sufficient  to  remove  them.  Laundering  proved  fatal 
to  all  the  tendered  portions,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  52,  which 
presents  the  condition  of  the  fabric  that  suggested  the 
damage  claim  against  the  laundry.  Strange  to  relate  the 
owner  of  this  garment  was  a  superintendent  of  a  large 
textile  mill. 

The  mordant  dyes,  when  properly  applied,  will  give 
the  launderer  no  trouble  under  ordinary  conditions  of 
laundering.  They  are,  furthermore,  as  a  rule  hard  to  strip 
from  the  fabric,  but  certain  ones  are  affected  by  oxidizing 
bleach  and  others  by  reducing  bleach.    The  standard  wash- 

95 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

room  foimulas  of  the  Laundryowners  National  As- 
sociation do  not  recommend  the  use  of  bleach 
on  colored  fabrics,  and  the  only  occasion  on 
which  the  launderer  will  be  called  upon  to  apply 
an  oxidizing  or  reducing  material  to  the  mordant 
dyed  cloth  is  when  some  fabric,  dyed  with  one  of  the  direct 
dyes,  has  "bled."  In  such  cases  it  is  well  to  test  the  action 
of  the  bleaching  material  on  some  portion  of  the  fabric 
that  is  hidden  from  general  observation.  It  is  considered 
pertinent  to  introduce  at  this  point  a  discussion  of  the  pro- 
prietary compounds  that  are  recommended  as  removing 
all  stains.  It  should  be  recognized  that  the  process  of  oxi- 
dation is  the  exact  opposite  to  the  process  of  reduction  and 
that  one  compound  cannot  combine  the  advantages  of 
both  processes,  and  therefore  can  not  be  expected  to  per- 
form the  impossible  task  of  removing  stains  of  every  chem- 
ical  type. 

Vat  Dyes. — The  vat  dyes  are  a  class  of  color  materials 
that  are  themselves  insoluble  in  water  and  to  be  applied 
to  the  fabrics  have  to  be  changed  to  a  soluble  form  by  the 
process  of  reduction.  After  the  fabric  is  evenly  treated 
with  the  soluble  reduced  form,  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  so 
that  reoxidation  may  take  place,  forming  a  coating  of  the 
insoluble  color  on  the  fibers  themselves.  This  type  of  dye 
is  fast  to  water,  soap,  alkalies  and  acids,  and  to  light  and 
bleaching,  and  cause  no  trouble  to  the  launderer. 

Sulfur  Dyes. — The  sulfide  or  sulfur  dyes  are  charac- 
terized by  the  ability  to  dye  vegetable  fibers  direct  from 
a  bath  containing  sodium  sulfide.  The  resulting  colored 
fabrics  are  remarkably  fast  to  washing  and  offer  little  cause 
for  worry  on  the  part  of  the  launderer.  The  one  exception  to 
this  statement  is  when  the  fabric  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  javelle  water,  which  acts  on  the  dyestuffs  even  in  weak 
solutions  destroying  their  color.  One  source  of  annoyance  to 

96 


Colored  Garments 

the  launderer  that  is  pecuHar  to  this  class  of  dyes  is  their 
tendency  to  oxidize  with  the  formation  of  free  sulfuric 
acid,  which  exerts  a  tendering  effect  on  fibers  of  vegetable 
origin.  The  results  of  experimental  work  on  these  dyes, 
planned  to  obtain  data  that  would  be  of  assistance  in  over- 
coming this  tendency,  show  that  the  sulfur  content  that 
is  oxidizable  to  form  free  sulfuric  acid  is  the  sulfur  upon 
which  the  dyeing  powers  of  the  compounds  are  dependent. 
Therefore,  the  sulfur  dyes  are  used  with  all  precautions  in 
the  eflfort  to  avoid  the  formation  of  sulfuric  acid,  but  the 
dye  can  not  be  guaranteed  to  retain  its  original  state. 
Printed  striped  shirtings  that  become  tendered  along  the 
line  of  the  stripes  are  frequently  dyed  with  sulfur  dyes. 
This  is  another  type  of  damage  that  is  not  to  be  credited 
to  the  launderer. 

Aniline  Dyes. — Anilineblack  is  given  a  special  classifica- 
tion becauseof  its  great  importance  as  adyestuff  and  because 
of  a  slightly  different  technicof  application.  It  is  a  material 
that  forms  an  insoluble  compound  on  the  surface  of  the  fiber 
by  an  oxidation  process,  but  the  oxidation  is  not  brought 
about  by  the  simple  method  of  exposing  the  treated  fabric 
to  the  air.  Instead,  chemical  reaction  of  compounds  that 
do  not  enter  into  the  final  product  of  reaction  except  as 
occluded  material,  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  the 
oxygen  that  brings  about  the  conversion  of  the  aniline 
black  to  an  insoluble  compound.  This  color  is  the  most 
difficultly  removed  of  all  dyes;  in  fact  complete  stripping 
from  the  fabric  is  impossible  without  detriment  to  the 
fabric. 


97 


CHAPTER  V. 

Corrosive  Materials. 

Damage  to  Fabrics  Due  to  Chemical  Action  of  Corrosive 
Materials. 

NO  person  in  the  laundry  plant  organization  has  a  greater 
opportunity  for  the  application  of  common  sense, 
supported  by  broad  information,  to  his  task  than  has  the 
claim  adjuster.  His  mental  ecjuipment  should  consist  of  an 
understanding  of  human  nature,  a  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mentals of  applied  psychology,  in  addition  to  thorough 
information  as  to  what  normally  goes  on  in  the  plant  and 
as  to  what  may,  with  a  degree  of  probability,  happen  by 
accident  to  influence  the  quality  of  laundry  service  ren- 
dered by  the  establishment  employing  him.  The  laundry 
claim  adjuster  has  an  important  function  to  perform,  and 
it  is  the  wish  of  this  Department  of  Chemical  Engineering 
to  help  him.  It  should  be  realized  that  in  adjusting  a  claim 
for  damage  a  great  deal  more  than  the  money  involved 
in  the  transaction  is  at  stake.  Good  will  is  created  and 
fostered  by  the  proficiency  of  the  entire  laundry  being  kept 
on  such  a  high  plane  that  there  will  be  the  minimum  num- 
ber of  occasions  for  claims  for  damage.  This  high  ideal 
may  be  approached,  never  quite  realized,  by  good  man- 
agement and  careful  co-operation  between  the  various  de- 
partments of  the  laundry.  Next  to  this  ideal  condition  as 
a  means  of  removing  prejudice  and  maintaining  favor  is  the 
equitable  adjustment  of  the  claims  that  do  inadvertently 
occur.  Adjusting  claims  to  please  the  patron  regardless  of 
the  merits  of  the  case  on  the  fallacious  policy  that  the  patron 
is  always  right,  tends  only  to  accentuate  the  prejudice  that 
exists  against  the  power  laundry  and  in  many  instances 

98 


Corrosive  Materials 

encourages  the  dishonest  patron  to  take  advantage  of  the 
laundry. 

The  claim  adjuster  can  not  be  urged  too  strongly  to 
exert  his  influence  for  careful  examination  of  articles  as 
they  are  received  at  the  plant.  When  he  once  realizes 
the  great  amount  of  interesting  and  important  data  that 
can  be  lost  between  the  time  of  arrival  and  the  time  of 
sorting  for  delivery  he  will  begin  to  insist  on  finding  every 
article  that  presents  a  possiblity  of  developing  a  damage 
while  it  still  bears  the  deciding  evidence. 

If  the  laundry  is  not  at  fault  in  a  given  case  it  is  better 
for  the  industry  in  general,  if  not  immediately,  for  the 
individual  laundry  to  spend  twenty  dollars  in  time,  thought 
and  effort  to  convince  the  patron  of  the  facts  than  to  spend 
ten  dollars  to  dispose  of  the  case  in  the  easier  way  by 
paying  the  claim.  In  addition  to  sacrificing  a  generous 
portion  of  good  will,  paying  an  unjust  claim  deprives  the 
laundry  of  just  that  much  resource  which  could  be  ex- 
pended in  improving  the  quality  of  the  service  it  has  to 
sell.  The  efforts  required  in  applying  the  suggestions 
herein  presented  should  not  be  denied,  therefore,  on  the 
score  of  time  economy. 

Where  it  is  considered  advisable  to  satisfy  the  patron's 
ideas  of  just  settlement,  payment  should  be  made  only 
after  the  greatest  effort  has  been  put  forth  to  convince 
the  patron  of  the  true  facts  in  the  case.  One  laundry- 
owner,  with  whom  one  of  the  authors  has  discussed  this 
very  point,  handles  matters  of  this  kind  in  the  following 
manner.  When  Mrs.  X  presents  a  claim  for  a  damaged 
dresser  scarf  Mr.  Laundryowner  submits  the  exhibit  to 
the  Department  of  Chemical  Engineering.  Upon  the 
receipt  of  a  report  that  the  tendered  spot  has  resulted 
from  the  action  of  a  certain  medicine  that  had  been  spilled 
on  the  scarf,  he  presents  the  report  to  Mrs.  X.  If  she  is 
reluctant  to  accept  this  explanation  and  if  he  desires  to 
retain  her  patronage,  he  pays  her  claim,  making  it  clear  to 

99 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  46.  Corrosion  by  Acid.  The  damage  exhibited  in  this 
photograph  effects  several  layers  of  the  fabric.  The  sheet,  when  re- 
ceived, was  folded  as  it  had  been  on  coming  from  the  flat  work  ironer, 
the  damage  extending  through  almost  all  the  layers  of  the  fabric.  The 
definite  relation  of  the  several  holes  was  enough  evidence  that  the 
damage  had  occurred  subsequent  to  folding  in  the  laundrj'.  The 
presence  of  sulfuric  acid  in  the  fabric  supported  this  conclusion  and 
indicated  that  the  damage  had  occurred  subsequent  to  the  occasion  of 
the  last  laundering. 


100 


Corrosive  Materials 


Fig.  47.  Corrosion  by  Acid.  This  photograph  shows  the  dam- 
age exhibited  in  Fig.  46  as  it  appeared  when  the  sheet  was  opened.  In 
deciding  where  the  responsibility  for  damage  lies,  the  space  relation  of 
the  damages  is  considered.  If  exhibits  are  received  after  they  have 
been  unfolded  and  folded  along  new  creases,  the  first  folding  may  be 
reconstructed.  In  many  cases  such  procedure  superimposes  the 
damages  and  demonstrates  the  time  of  damage  as  subsequent  to 
laundering.  If  no  such  relationship  is  observed  the  conclusion  may 
be  drawn  that  the  damage  occurred  during  use  or  at  some  other 
period  when  the  article  is  not  folded  for  storage. 


101 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

her,  however,  that  payment  does  not  indicate  that  he 
accepts  the  responsibihty  of  the  damage.  He  explains 
that  he  makes  adjustment  according  to  her  ideas  to  show 
that  it  is  not  the  money  consideration,  but  the  principle 
of  fair  dealing  involved,  that  has  influenced  him  to  exert 
such  effort  to  ascertain  the  true  cause  of  damage. 

It  has  been  shown  in  previous  chapters  how  defective 
weaving  or  mechanical  abuse  may  be  the  cause  of  a  pre- 
mature failure  of  a  fabric.  Information  accompanied  by 
photographs  of  actual  exhibits  of  chemical  corrosion 
examined  by  the  authors,  helpful  in  arriving  at  the  correct 
conclusions,  is  presented  in  this  chapter.  In  cases  of 
doubt  the  services  of  the  Department  of  Chemical  Engineer- 
ing are  at  the  disposal  of  any  member  of  the  Laundry- 
owners  National  Association. 

In  the  laboratory  it  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter 
to  decide  quickly  and  definitely  whether  a  certain  textile 
failure  has  resulted  from  chemical  or  mechanical  action. 
It  is  not  always  possible,  however,  to  identify  the  corroding 
material.  This  limitation  will  be  understood  when  one 
considers  that  the  damage  is  not  usually  brought  to  the 
chemist's  attention  until  after  the  fabric  has  been  laundered 
and  the  corroding  substance  if  soluble  is  thereby  removed 
and  the  ev^idence  which  would  lead  to  the  identification 
is  destroyed.  Sometimes  the  corroding  material  is  also 
a  staining  material  and  leaves  unmistakable  evidence  for 
the  chemist  to  employ.  In  the  absence  of  chemical  evi- 
dence as  to  the  identity  of  the  corroding  material,  recourse 
is  had  to  the  knowledge  of  common  household  and  industrial 
materials  that  will  produce  tendering  on  textiles.  Some 
of  these,  by  way  of  suggestion,  are  presented  later. 

There  are  also  many  facts  to  be  observed  in  examining 
a  corroded  fabric  which  may  be  helpfully  applied  as  cir- 
cumstantial evidence.  Such  facts  pertain  to  the  outline 
and  relative  location  of  the  holes  or  tendered  areas  of  the 
fabrics.     (See  Figures  46,  47,  48  49  and  50.)     If  the  fabric 

102 


Corrosive  Materials 


Fig.  48.  Circular  Corrosions.  Another  type  of  corrosion  is 
illustrated  here.  In  this  case  the  corrosion  has  occurred  in  a  ring,  the 
enclosed  and  surrounding  areas  of  fabric  being  less  definitely  damaged. 
Such  ring  damages  can  occur  only  by  placing  a  bottle  or  similar  vessel 
on  the  fabric  without  cleaning  the  outside  to  prevent  the  corrosive 
material  from  running  down  onto  the  fabric.  This  article  was  laundered 
between  the  time  of  damaging  and  the  time  of  photographing;  the 
fact  that  the  damage  was  very  limited  in  area  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  fabric  immediately  within  the  ring  was  strong  enough  to 
withstand  laundering. 


103 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

is  of  the  same  material,  both  in  warp  and  filling,  and  the 
corroding  material  a  thin  fluid  and  the  fabric  dry  or  nearly 
so  when  the  corrosive  is  acquired,  the  resulting  hole  or 
tendered  area  will  be  nearly  circular  in  outline.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  corroding  material  is  of  a  pasty  consis- 
tency, the  hole  or  tendered  area  will  have  a  position  and 
shape  corresponding  to  the  original  smear.  That  is  to 
say,  the  application  of  a  pasty  corrosive  material  to  a 
fabric  will  usually  result  in  a  tendered  area  of  an  irregular 
outline. 

If  the  holes,  in  case  there  are  more  than  one  in  the 
piece,  are  located  so  that  by  folding  the  fabric  in  a  certain 
way  the  holes  may  be  superimposed  so  that  each  area  will 
be  concentric  with  the  next  underlying  area,  this  fact  of 
itself  constitutes  evidence  that  the  corroding  material 
was  acquired  while  the  fabric  was  folded  in  just  the  manner 
required  to  superimpose  the  holes.  Such  cases  are  of 
common  occurrence  and  are  illustrated  by  Figures  46  and 
47.  Evidence  of  this  character  has  often  been  of  assistance 
in  determining  at  whose  hands  the  damage  was  acquired, 
as  for  instance,  in  one  case  a  bed  sheet  was  folded  just  as 
it  is  usually  folded  when  received  from  the  flatwork  ironer, 
and  in  another  a  table  cloth  was  folded  in  a  careless  manner 
as  it  might  have  been  folded  w^hen  removed  soiled  from 
the  table.  The  first  case  indicated  that  the  damage  was 
done  after  the  piece  left  the  ironer  and  before  it  was  used 
by  the  patron.  The  second  case  indicated  that  the  damage 
was  done  after  the  article  has  been  soiled,  before  it  had 
the  last  laundering  and  not  while  the  cloth  was  spread  for 
use.  Yet  another  table  cloth  showed  numerous  holes 
without  any  symmetrical  relation  to  each  other,  indicat- 
ing that  each  hole  was  the  result  of  an  individual  drop  of 
the  corrosive  while  the  cloth  was  spread  out,  perhaps  in 
course  of  use. 

When  a  fabric  is  composed  of  wool  warp  and  cotton 
filling,  or  vice  versa,  and  the  cotton  is  tendered  in  limited 


104 


Corrosive  Materials 


Fig.  49.  CiRCUL.\R  Corrosion.  The  article  in  Fig.  48  is  shown 
folded  in  the  position  in  which  the  damage  occurred.  This  photograph 
has  been  taken  of  the  article  spread  out  so  that  the  extent  of  the  damage 
may  be  observed.  The  most  definite  damages  occur  in  the  upper  left 
hand  quarter  of  the  picture,  but  breaks  that  indicate  a  circular  tendered 
area  are  to  be  seen  in  both  right  hand  quarters. 


105 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

areas,  while  the  wool  is  unchanged,  wc  know  at  once  that 
the  corroding  material  was  an  acid  because  acids  have 
little  effect  on  wool  and  a  pronounced  effect  on  cotton.  Or, 
if  in  such  a  combination  of  warp  and  filling  the  wool  has 
been  tendered  and  the  cotton  unaffected,  we  would  know 
that  the  tendering  agent  had  been  of  a  strong  alkaline  na- 
ture because  alkalies  dissolve  wool  and  scarcely  affect  cot- 
ton. (See  Figures  7,  8  and  9,  Chapter  I.)  In  a  combination 
such  as  described  for  these  two  cases,  linen  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  cotton  and  silk  for  wool,  the  effect  of  acid  being 
the  same  on  linen  as  on  cotton  and  the  effect  of  alkalies  on 
silk  the  same  as  on  wool.  The  manifestation  of  this  sort 
of  chemical  tendering  is  a  tendency  to  slitting  and  often  one 
set  of  yarn  disappears  entirely  leaving  an  appearance  of 
drawn  work  as  shown  in  figures  8  and  9. 

Chemical  tendering,  as  is  true  of  all  mistreatments  that 
work  against  the  possibility  of  the  greatest  service  of  a 
fabric,  may  be  due  to  the  errors  or  mistakes  of  the  manu- 
facturer, the  user,  or  the  launderer.  F"ollowing  a  modifica- 
tion of  a  biblical  injunction,  we  will  first  consider  the  motes 
that  are  in  our  own  eyes  and  then  proceed  to  the  beams 
that  obscure  the  correct  vision  of  the  other  two  agencies  of 
responsibility. 

The  Launderer. — If  the  tendering  is  in  local  spots  or 
areas,  the  possibility  that  the  regular  laundering  process 
is  to  be  blamed  is  at  once  precluded,  because  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  produce  such  results  while  the  fabric  is  in  a  bath  in 
the  wheel.  Contrary^  to  a  popularly  expressed  belief  not 
even  particles  of  undisintegrated  bleaching  powder  from 
the  bleach  jar  when  applied  in  the  wheel  can  make  a  ten- 
dered area  that  can  be  detected  without  the  aid  of  careful 
laboratory  tests.  This  statement  must  not  be  construed 
as  a  license  for  the  use  of  improperly  prepared  bleach  liquor, 
because  the  effect  of  such  a  liquor  is  accumulative  and  does 
in  time  shorten  the  life  of  a  fabric. 

106 


Corrosive  Materials 

Caustic  soda  or  strong  acids  will  not  produce  local  ten- 
dered areas  when  applied  to  goods  in  the  wheel.  Progres- 
siv-e  lessening  of  the  tensile  strength  of  fabrics  may  be 
caused  by  the  use  of  these  materials  in  the  wheel,  but  the 
damage  does  not  appear  in  the  form  of  local  well  defined 
tendered  areas  or  holes.  It  should  be  remembered  in  this 
connection  that  the  findings  of  the  authors  indicate  that 
the  prudent  laundryowner  will  keep  caustic  soda,  sul- 
furic acid  and  sodium  bisulfate  out  of  his  plant  or,  if  special 
conditions  require  the  use  of  caustic  soda  or  sodium  bisul- 
fate, the  quantities  should  be  carefully  controlled  and 
thorough  rinsing  be  rigidly  employed  after  their  use.  Sul- 
furic acid  has  no  legitimate  place  in  any  laundry.  While 
a  consideration  of  these  established  facts  shows  that  the 
source  of  a  hole  of  chemical  origin  or  a  local  tendered  spot 
can  not  be  attributed  to  the  careless  use  of  these  materials 
in  the  wheel,  complete  exoneration  of  the  washroom  cannot 
be  given  on  the  basis  of  them  alone.    We  will  look  further. 

It  is  a  common  fault  to  be  observed  in  many  laundries 
that  garments  of  odd  character,  not  sufficiently  extensive 
in  numbers  to  make  a  washing  load  for  each  lot,  are  thrown 
in  a  corner  on  the  washroom  fioor  until  there  is  an  accumu- 
lation of  volume  to  suit  the  washman's  convenience  or  his 
fancy  as  to  what  constitutes  a  load  of  economically  wash- 
able size.  Pieces  awaiting  individual  attention  (hand  wash) 
are  likewise  often  thrown  aside  on  the  floor.  When  in  such 
a  location  these  goods  are  subject  to  dam^ige  not  only  by 
the  possibility  of  being  ground  between  an  iron  castor  wheel 
and  the  cement  floor,  but  in  many  instances  they  receive 
spatterings  from  the  bleach  jar  or  sour  container  or  from 
the  washman's  pail  as  he  is  transferring  these  reagents  to 
the  wheel.  Sours  other  than  acetic  acid  if  spilled  on  cotton 
or  linen  and  allowed  to  dry  thereon  will  always  produce 
tendering  and  in  most  cases  holes.  Bleach  solution  of  the 
strength  usually  employed  in  the  laundry  for  a  stock  solu- 
tion, if  spilled  on  any  fabric  and  allowed  to  concentrate  by 

107 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

normal  evaporation,  will  usually  produce  tendering.  Strong 
soda  solutions  if  spilled  on  silk  or  wool  and  allowed  to  dry 
thereon  will  cause  tendering.  Eliminate  these  possibilities 
and  the  washroom  may  be  cleared  from  all  blame  as  far  as 
holes  caused  by  direct  chemical  action  are  concerned. 

The  policy  of  using  the  washroom  floor  for  the  recep- 
tion of  this  class  of  goods  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
In  order  to  minimize  these  possibilities,  bins  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  reception  of  the  class  of  articles  mentioned 
above  which  accumulate  in  the  washroom  for  deferred 
attention,  and  the  laundry  management  should  insist  upon 
the  use  of  these  bins  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
designed. 

Instances  of  holes  being  caused  in  fabrics  during  their 
sojourn  in  the  laundry  have  come  to  our  attention.  These 
have  sometimes  resulted  from  the  excessive  use  of  stain 
removers  and  at  other  times  from  the  failure  to  properly 
rinse  the  fabric  after  the  treatment  with  these  reagents. 
There  exists  also  the  possibility  of  the  stain  removing 
reagents  being  spilled  on  goods  that  are  lying  about  on 
the  table  used  for  the  stain  removal  treatment.  If  a 
special  bench  for  this  work  is  not  available,  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  no  customers'  goods  are  adjacent  to 
the  working  place  at  the  time.  Of  the  stain  removal 
materials  prescribed  in  the  chart  (see  insert  in  Chap.  VI  of 
this  book,  also  L.  N.  A.  charts),  javelle  water,  potassium 
permanganate  and  oxalic  acid,  if  not  properly  handled, 
are  corrosive  to  cotton  and  linen.  Javelle  water  should 
not  be  used  on  wool  or  silk.  Potassium  permanganate 
in  concentrated  solution,  or  if  not  properly  rinsed  after 
having  been  applied,  is  corrosive  to  silk  and  wool.  The 
proprietary  outfits  of  stain  removing  materials  often 
contain  solutions  of  hydrochloric  and  hydrofluoric  acids. 
These  are  corrosive  to  cotton  and  linen  if  left  to  dry  on 
the   fabric.     As  a  general   proposition,   fabrics  should  be 

108 


Corrosive  Materials 

well   rinsed  with   pure  water  after  having  been   treated 
with  any  stain  removing  material. 

While  the  authors  feel  that  the  two  possible  sources 
of  chemical  damage  just  discussed,  carelessness  in  the 
washroom  and  the  improper  manipulation  of  stain  re- 
movers, are  usually  guarded  against  in  most  laundries, 
it  is  considered  in  place  that  emphasis  should  be  laid  on 
them  as  possible  contingencies  against  which  to  be  pro- 
vided. Carefulness  in  the  plant  will  support  the  claim 
adjuster  and  give  him  an  attitude  of  confidence  which  will 
be  reflected  to  the  patron.  Notwitstanding  the  fact,  as 
stated  elsewhere,  that  less  than  five  per  cent,  of  all  exhibits 
of  all  kinds  of  damage  to  fabrics  that  have  been  submitted 
to  us  have  represented  cases  in  which  the  laundry  has 
been  at  fault,  we  feel  that  the  strength  of  this  statement 
should  be  taken  with  some  reservation  because  of  the 
high  probability  that  we  have  to  deal  in  these  matters 
with  only  the  more  progressive  plants.  It  is  to  the  interest 
of  every  individual  laundryowner  that  the  faults  of  the 
entire  industry  should  be  eliminated  as  nearly  as  possible. 
In  this  alone  lies  an  incentive  for  every  member  of  the 
Laundryowners  National  Association  to  be  a  booster  for 
the  extension  of  the  membership.  The  higher  the  standard 
of  perfection  attained  by  the  average  laundry,  the  better 
it  will  be  for  the  industry ;  by  such  accomplishment  adver- 
tising becomes  more  eflfective,  and  existing  prejudices 
become  more  easily  displaced  by  the  facts  in  the  patron's 
mind. 

Holes  of  a  chemical  source  or  local  tendered  spots  in 
fabrics  may  be  compared  to  acute  diseases  of  the  human 
body,  while  conditions  in  the  plant  under  which  progressive 
depreciation  of  the  tensile  strength  occurs,  due  to  incorrect 
laundry  methods,  are  not  unlike  chronic  diseases  of  the 
human  body.  Instances  of  the  first  example  are  forced 
upon  our  attention  while  the  causes  of  the  second  con- 
dition go  unnoticed  for  a  time,  the  cause  persisting  and 

109 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

finally,  unless  remedied  in  time,  leading  to  disastrous 
results.  As  an  index  of  the  presence  of  conditions  causing 
the  progressive  but  untimely  failure  of  fabrics,  every 
laundry  should  keep  up  the  practice  of  continually  running 
control  pieces  through  with  each  typical  class  of  work.  A 
set  of  specially  marked  collars,  for  instance,  should  be 
kept  continually  going  through  the  process  and  suitable 
record  kept  of  the  number  of  treatments  they  survive. 
Similar  arrangements  should  be  contriv-ed  with  big  com- 
mercial flat  work  contracts.  The  procedure  here  sug- 
gested is  not  unduly  expensive  when  properly  organized, 
and  is  many  times  repaid  by  the  feeling  of  confidence 
it  affords  the  management  if  the  laundry  methods  are  good 
and,  what  is  more  important,  by  the  help  it  offers  in 
detecting  violations  of  good  practice  when  they  do  occur. 
The  price  of  producing  laundry  service  satisfactory  as  to 
appearance,  sanitation  and  coordinate  conservation  of 
the  life  of  the  patron's  goods,  is  eternal  vigilance. 

THE  wearer's  responsibility. 

As  the  reader  has  already  been  led  to  see,  the  larger 
number  of  instances  of  damaged  fabrics  bearing  holes  or 
local  tendered  spots  constitute  those  wherein  the  wearer 
or  user  is  to  blame  for  the  exhibited  condition.  In  these 
cases  the  patron  must  be,  if  possible,  convinced  of  his 
responsibility.  The  claim  adjuster  must  not  only  feel 
secure,  yet  withal  open  minded,  in  his  conviction  that  the 
laundry  is  not  at  fault,  but  he  should  also  be  familiar 
with  the  possible  sources  of  damage  to  which  the  owner 
may  have  submitted  the  fabric.  If  there  is  any  doubt 
in  the  mind  of  the  claim  adjuster  as  to  whether  the  damage 
is  of  chemical  or  mechanical  source,  he  should  first  of  all 
avail  himself  of  the  Laundryowners  National  Association's 
Department  of  Chemical  Engineering.  Having  the  infor- 
mation that  the  case  represents  a  chemical  corrosion,  the 
following  tables  will  be  found  useful. 

110 


Corrosive  Materials 


TABLE  No.  1. 

TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO  FABRICS. 


Chemical  Name. 

Acids 

Chloracetic 

Dichloracetic 

Trichloracetic 

Chromic 


Hydrochloric 


Common  Name. 


Muriatic  acid 


Nitric 


Oxalic 


Sulfuric 


Aqua  fortis 


Oil  of  vitriol 


Use. 


Dentists  and  chiropodists. 

In  dyeing,  tanning,  metal  pol- 
ishes, veterinary  practice  and 
to  some  extent  in  medicine  as 
an  escharotic. 

Widely  used  in  arts  and  indus- 
tries. In  medicine,  certain 
cases  of  dyspepsia.  On  farm 
and  dairy  in  doing  the  Bab- 
cock  test  for  butterfat  in 
milk.  In  soldering.  Many 
other  uses.  Often  a  household 
material. 

In  manufacture  of  certain  ex- 
plosives and  dyes.  In  medical 
and  veterinary  practice  in 
treating  warts,  malignant 
growths,  etc. 

In  metal  polishes,  stain  re- 
movers, ink  eradicators.  To 
some  extent  in  medicine. 

Common  industrial  material. 
In  dilute  form  in  many  med- 
ical preparations.  For  gastro- 
indigestion,  treatment  of 
goiter.  Exciting  liquid  in 
lead  storage  battery.  Pick- 
ling of  steel  and  iron  in  prepa- 
ration for  galvanizing,  tin 
plating  and  porcelain  enam- 
eling. Many  other  uses.  See 
next  table  Even  most  dilute 
solutions  if  allowed  to  dry  on 


111 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

TABLE  No.   1— Continued. 
TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO  FABRICS. 

Chemical  Name.  Common  Name.  Use. 

cotton  and  linen  will  produce 
tendering.  Used  in  carbon- 
izing wool,  a  process  whereby 
wool  is  freed  of  burrs,  woody 
splinters  and  vegetable  fibres. 
Alkalies 

Potassium  hydroxide     Caustic  potash       In  making  soap. 

Sodium  Hydroxide         Caustic  soda  In  making  soap.     A  solution 

of  caustic  soda  is  the  exciting 
liquid  in  the  nickel  iron  stor- 
age batteries  which  are  popu- 
larly used  on  electric  trucks. 

Salts — 

Aluminum  chloride     In  treating  petroleum.     As  a 

disinfectant. 
Aluminum  nitrate       In  the  leather  industry. 

Aluminum  sulfate       Coagulant    for    treating    and 

clarifying  muddy  water. 
In  leather  and  paper  indus- 
tries. In  medicine  and  veter- 
inary practice  as  a  powerful 
astringent,  treating  ulcers,  en- 
larged tonsils,  in  treating  na- 
sal tumors  (polypi). 

Antimony  trichloride      In  making  patent  leather,  in 

bronzing  metal  for  gun  bar- 
rels, in  blackening  zinc  sur- 
faces. A  remedy  for  snake 
bites.  In  treating  poisoned 
wounds. 

Copper  sulfate  Blue  vitriol  Exciting  material  in  galvanic 

battery.      As   a    preservative 


for  wood.  Treating  water  in 
swimming  pools.  In  dyeing, 
manufacturing  green  and  blue 


112 


Corrosive  Materials 

TABLE  No.   1.— Continued. 
TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO  FABRICS. 


Chemical  Name. 


Common  Name. 


Iron  chloride 


Ferric  chloride 
solution,  tincture 
of  iron 


Iron  nitrate 


Iron  sulfate 


Copperas  or 
green  vitriol 


Lead  nitrate 


Potassium  aluminum     Alum 
sulfate 


Use. 

pigment.  In  medical  practice 
treating  chronic  diarrhea,  and 
externally  for  treatment  of 
callous  wounds.  Household 
for  treating  warts,  hair  dye, 
etc.  Much  used  in  veterinary 
practice. 

In  photo-engraving.  Mordant 
in  dyeing.  To  be  found  in 
most  accident  kits  to  be  used 
to  stop  hemorrhages  (styptic). 
As  an  astringent  in  many 
gargles  for  sore  throat.  Often 
a  constituent  of  tonics.  Used 
by  dentists,  chiropodists,  bar- 
bers and  manicurists,  to  in- 
hibit bleeding. 

As  mordant  in  dyeing  and 
calico  printing,  for  weighting 
silk  and  dyeing  it  black. 
Used  to  some  extent  in  medi- 
cal and  veterinary  practice. 

In  dyeing,  tanning  and  pho- 
tography. In  medicine  as 
tonic.  Externally  in  treating 
skin  diseases.  A  common 
medicine  given  to  chickens 
and  hogs. 

Used  in  patent  preparations 
for  chapped  hands  and  cracked 
lips. 

In  dyeing  and  printing,  in 
manufacturing  dyes,  paper, 
vegetable  glues,  marble  ce- 
ment,  porcelain  cement  and 


113 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


TABLE  No.   1.— Continued. 
TABLE  OK  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO  FABRICS. 


Chemical  Name. 


Common  Name. 


Potassium  perman- 
ganate 


Sodium  bisulfate 


Nitre  cake 


Sodium  bifluoride 
Stannic  chloride 
Silver  nitrate 

Zinc  chloride 


Salt  of  tin 
Tin  chloride 

Lunar  caustic 


Use. 

in  tanning.  Common  house- 
hold material.  Dried  or  burnt 
alum  is  used  by  barbers  as 
caustic  and  styptic. 

Bleaching  and  stain  removing. 
A  common  household  antisep- 
tic and  prophylactic.  A  rem- 
edy for  snake  bites  and  anti- 
dote for  other  organic  poisons. 

Common  household  material 
usually  purchased  under  trade 
name,  such  as  "sani-flush," 
used  for  cleansing  porcelain 
sanitary  fixtures.  For  pick- 
ling iron  and  steel  preparatory 
to  enameling,  galvanizing  or 
tin  plating.  Substitute  for 
sulfuric  acid.  Has  been  used 
in  drinking  water  to  prevent 
typhoid  fever  in  the  field. 


Preservative, 
glass. 


For     etching 


In    dyeing,    tanning    and 
weighting  silk. 

In  photography,  and  in  prepa- 
ration of  other  silver  salts.  In 
medicine,  antiseptic  in  treat- 
ment of  ulcers  and  morbid 
growths. 

In  dental  cement,  preserva- 
tive for  wood,  flux  for  solder- 
ing, etching  metals,  and  in 
oil  refining.  Used  in  proprie- 
tary preparations  sold  for 
checking    excessive    perspira- 


114 


Corrosive  Materials 
TABLE  No.  1.— Continued. 

TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO   FABRICS. 


Chemical  Name, 


Zinc  sulfate 


Common  Name. 


White  vitriol 


Pharmaceuticals. 


Astringent  and 
caustic  mixture 


Antiseptic  solution 
of  pepsin 


Aqua  Hydrogen 
dioxide 


Compjound  infusion 
of  rose 


Fluid  extract  of 
senega 

Fluid  extract  of 
taraxacum 


Hydrogen 
peroxide 


Use. 

tion  under  armpits.  Used  in 
treating  scrofula,  and  other 
diseases. 

Antiseptic  in  medical  and  vet- 
erinary practice. 

Note: — Statements  apply- 
ing to  pharmaceutical  prepa- 
rations must  not  be  construed 
as  being  recommended  by  the 
authors. 

Corrosive  components  are 
zinc  sulfate  and  copper  sul- 
fate. Applied  locally  to  ma- 
lignant growths. 

Corrosive  component  is  hy- 
drochloric acid.  Adminis- 
tered in  some  cases  of  indi- 
gestion. 

Corrosive  component  is  sul- 
furic acid.  Used  as  antisep- 
tic, prophylactic  and  deodor- 
ant. 

Corrosive  component  is  sul- 
furic acid.  Used  in  throat 
gargles  and  as  a  masking  fla- 
vor and  colorant  in  many 
preparations. 

Corrosive  component  to  silk 
and  wool  is  caustic  potash. 
Used  as  a  cathartic. 

Corrosive  component  to  silk 
and  wool  is  caustic  soda. 
Used  as  cathartic. 


115 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

TABLE  No.  1.— Continued. 
TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO  FABRICS. 


Chemical  Name. 

Liquor  cresoli 
compositus 


"Lysol" 


Common  Name. 


A  proprietary 


Use. 

Corrosive  component  to  silk 
and' wool  is  caustic  potash. 
Used  as  germicide. 

Similar  to  liquor  cresoli  com- 
positus. 


Liquor  picis  alkalinus  Corrosive  component  is  caus- 
tic potash.  Used  in  treatment 
of  eczema  and  other  affections 
of  the  skin. 


Liquor  acidi  arsenosi  Hydrochloric 
acid  solution 
of  arsenic 


Corrosive  component  is  hy- 
drochloric acid.  In  intermit- 
tent fevers  and  in  skin  dis- 
eases. 


Liquor  chlori  com-         Compound  so-        Corrosive  components  are  free 
positus  lution  of  chlorine    chlorine       and     hydrochloric 

acid.     Gargle. 


Liquor  hydrargyri 
nitras 


Solution  of  mer-     Corrosive  component  is  nitric 
curie  nitrate  acid.       In     treating     cancer, 

chancres,  acne  and  boils. 


Liquor  sodae 
chlorinatae 


Javelle  water  or 

Dakin-Carrol 

solution 


Corrosive  component  is  sodi- 
um hypochlorite.  Treatment 
of  wounds.  Used  mostly  in 
severe  hospital  cases.  Some- 
times in  treatment  of  sore 
throat. 


Refrigerants 


Fever  drops  Often  contain  one  or  more  of 

the  following  acids:  Sulfuric, 
nitric,  phosphoric  or  hydro- 
chloric. Administered  in  cases 
of  fever  to  reduce  body  tem- 
perature. 


116 


Corrosive  Materials 

TABLE  No.  1.— Continued. 
TABLE  OF  MATERIALS  CORROSIVE  TO   FABRICS. 

Chemical  Name.  Common  Natne.  Use. 

Syrup  of  phosphate        Corrosive  component  is  iron 

iron,  quinine  and  sulfate  or  iron  chloride.  Tonic 

strychnine  commonly     administered     in 

convalescence. 

Other  Preparations. 

Cleansers  for  porce-        See  under  sodium  bisulfate. 

lain  toilet  fixtures 

Corn  and  Wart  These     preparations     usually 

removers  contain  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 

lowing   acids;    trichloracetic, 
nitric  or  chromic. 

Cuticle  acid  Manicurist  Corrosive  component  is  oxalic 

preparation  acid. 

Cuticle  remover  Trade  name  Corrosive  component  is  caus- 

"Cutex"  tic  soda. 

Foot  ease  Tiz,  Allen's  Corrosive     components     are 

Foot  Ease,  etc.       alum  or  zinc  chloride  or  other 
astringent  materials. 

Metal  polishes  Corrosive  components  are  ox- 

alic acid,  sodium  bisulfate,  ni- 
tric or  sulfuric  acids. 

Wrinkle  cradicators        Corrosive     components     are 

alum,  zinc  chloride,  zinc  sul- 
fate and  other  astringent  salts. 


117 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


TABLE  No.  2. 

TABLE  OF  CORROSIVES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  VARIOUS  PROFESSIONS 
AND  EMPLOYMENTS. 


Industry,  Profession  or  Trade  in 
Which  Claimant  is  Engaged. 

Automobile  manufacturing 


Barbers 

Canning  factory. 

Coke  (By-product  recovery 
process) 

Chemical  Industries 


Chemist 
Chiropodist 

Dentist 
Detinning  plants 


Doctor  (medical  or  veterinary) 
including  hospital  employees 
and  nurses 


Corroding  Materials  Which  Might 
Be  Encountered. 

Sulfuric  acid  in  storage  batteries.  Caus- 
tic soda  in  nickel  iron  batteries.  Pick- 
ling baths  for  preparing  metals  for 
nickel  plating,  silver  plating,  etc. 
Antimony  trichloride  for  making  gun 
metal    finish.      Soldering    fluxes,    etc. 

Silver  nitrate  for  antiseptic,  alum  and 
ferric  chloride  to  inhibit  bleeding. 

Fluxing  materials  for  soldering,  such  as 
zinc  chloride  and  hydrochloric  acid. 

Sulfuric  acid  for  the  recovery  of  am- 
monium sulfate,  also  laboratory  rea- 
gents. 

Products  produced,  all  the  mineral 
acids  and  the  salts  mentioned  in  pre- 
ceding table.  Also  the  mineral  acids 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
acids  as  acetic,  oxalic,  formic  and  others 
of  the  organic  acids. 

Many  laboratory  reagents. 

Trichloracetic  acid,  nitric  acid  and  any 
of  the  styptics  as  ferric  chloride,  alum, 
etc. 

Trichloracetic  acid  for  treating  cases 
of  pyorrhea,  ferric  chloride  to  inhibit 
bleeding,  phenolsulfonic  acid,  sulfuric 
acid  and  silver  nitrate,  etc. 

Hydrochloric  acid  is  used  in  dissolving 
tin  and  zinc  from  scrap  metal. 

Any  of  the  pharmaceuticals  mentioned 
in  previous  table. 


118 


Corrosive  Materials 


TABLE  No.   2.— Continued. 

TABLE  OF  CORROSIVES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  VARIOUS  PROFESSIONS 
AND  EMPLOYMENTS. 


Industry,  Profession  or  Trade  in 
Which  Claimant  is  Engaged 

Dyeing,  Textile  finishing 
trades 

Electrical  machinery 


Embalmer 


Engraving 

Explosives 
Farmer 

Fertilizer  factory 

Flour  mills 

Funeral  Director 


Corroding  Materials  Which  Might 
Be  Encountered 

Bleaching  materials,  Mordants  and 
stripping  salts. 

Fluids  for  storage  batteries,  fluxing 
materials  for  soldering  and  brazing, 
also  various  metal  polishing  materials. 

Mercuric  chloride,  zinc  chloride,  zinc 
sulfate  and  aluminum  sulfate  are  used 
in  the  embalming  fluids. 

Sulfuric,  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids 
and  ferric  chloride. 

Sulfuric  and  nitric  acids. 

Medical  and  veterinary  preparations, 
insecticides,  etc. 

Sulfuric  acid  in  making  superphosphate. 
Sulfuric  acid  for  treating  fish  scrap. 

Nitric  acid  as  a  source  of  nitric  oxide 
fumes  for  bleaching,  also  bleaching 
powders  and  mineral  acid  as  source  of 
chlorine  for  bleaching  flour. 

See  Embalmer. 


Gas  plant  (artificial  or  coal  gas)    Sulfuric  acid  for  reclaiming  ammonium 

sulfate. 


Glass  factory 
Glucose  and  starch 
Hotels 


Sulfuric  and  hydrofluoric  acids  for 
etching  designs  and  finishing  cut  glass. 

Hydrochloric  and  sulfuric  acids  in 
making  glucose  and  corn  syrup. 

Ordinary  household  hazards.  Strongly 
acid  cleaning  solutions  for  sanitary 
porcelain  fixtures.  Metal  polishes. 
Caustic  soda  for  the  mechanical  dish- 


119 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


TABLE  No.  2.— Continued. 

TABLE  OF  CORROSIVES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  VARIOUS  PROFESSIONS 
AND  EMPLOYMENTS. 


Industry,  Profession  or  Trade  in 
Which  Claimant  is  Engaged 


Iron  and  steel  galvanizing,  tin 
plating,  porcelain  enameling 

Leather 


Mortician 

Musical  instruments 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Petroleum  Refineries 

Plumbers 

Photographers 

Restaurants 

Smelters 


Soap  factories 

Soap 

Trade  and  Transportation  Dis- 
pensers, in  drug  and  other 
stores  handling  materials  men- 
tioned in  previous  table,  freight 
handlers. 

Undertaker 


Corroding  Materials  Which  Might 
Be  Encountered 

washer.  The  medicines  and  toilet  ma- 
terials of  the  guests  as  listed  in  previous 
table. 

Sulfuric  acid  and  sodium  bisulfate  for 
pickling. 

Corrosive  mineral  salts  such  as  alumi- 
num nitrate,  antimony  trichloride, 
iron  sulfate,  chromic  acid,  etc. 

See  Embalmer. 

Metal  polishes,  soldering  fluxes,  etc. 

Bleaching  powders,  caustic  soda,  and 
sodium  bisulfate. 

Aluminum  chloride,  sulfuric  and  nitric 
acids,  zinc  chloride. 

Mineral  acids  and  soldering  fluxes. 

Iron  sulfate,  o.xalic  acid,  silver  nitrate. 

Caustic  soda  for  the  mechanical  dish- 
washer, metal  polishes. 

Many  of  the  smelters  of  the  sulfide 
ores  of  lead,  zinc  and  copper  produce 
sulfuric  acid  as  a  by-product.  Also  in 
bleaching  ores,  chlorine,  strong  mineral 
acids,  and  sodium  cyanide. 

Caustic  soda  and  caustic  potash. 

Also  reagents  in  analytical  laboratories. 

From  spilling  of  corrosive  materials 
from  broken  or  leaking  containers. 


See    Embalming. 


120 


Corrosive  Materials 

In  table  number  one  is  presented  a  list  of  materials 
that  are  corrosive  to  fabrics.  The  materials  placed  in  the 
first  column  are  suggestive  of  those  which  may  be  en- 
countered in  the  industries,  arts,  medicine  and  in  the  house- 
hold. A  comprehensive  enumeration  of  all  such  materials 
would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book,  but  if  the  ones  pre- 
sented are  carefully  studied  an  adequate  idea  of  the  clothes 
hazard  in  every  day  life  must  be  impressed  on  the  reader. 
The  laundry  salesman  and  claim  adjuster,  fortified  with 
this  information,  will  have  a  tremendous  advantage  in 
representing  the  interests  of  the  industry.  It  is  thought 
also  that  the  data  collected  therein  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  the  preparation  of  dignified  constructive  publicity 
and  advertising  material.  The  second  column  gives  the 
common  name,  while  the  third  gives  the  uses  of  the  ma- 
terials. 

Table  number  two  presents  an  alphabetic  arrangement 
of  the  various  professions,  trades  and  employments  with 
the  corrosive  materials  which  constitute  the  clothes  haz- 
ards in  each  particular  one.  Having  found  in  any  par- 
ticular case  the  employment  or  activities  of  the  owner  of 
the  fabric  under  consideration,  reference  to  this  table  will 
furnish  suggestions  as  to  the  probable  source  of  the  corro- 
sion. In  these  included  in  the  industrial  occupations  it 
should  be  pointed  out  that  it  is  not  the  actual  workers  that 
are  so  frequently  involved  in  laundry  claims.  Such  per- 
sons are  usually  conscious  of  the  clothes  hazard  of  their 
occupation  and  therefore  are  less  apt  to  entertain  prejudice 
against  the  laundry  in  the  event  of  a  failure  of  the  fabric 
in  garments  worn  in  their  work.  It  is  rather  those  persons 
who  are  engaged  in  these  industries  in  supervisory  capacity, 
or  who  only  incidentally  or  occasionally  are  about  the 
works  where  the  corrosive  materials  are  exposed,  that  the 
laundry  claim  adjuster  has  to  deal.  By  such  a  person  the 
corroding  material  will  be  acquired  by  accident,  the  ten- 
dering will  develop  slowly,  not  showing  till  after  the  laun- 

121 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  50.  Corrosion'  by  Acid.  This  photograph  shows  a  damage 
similar  to  that  in  Figs.  46  and  47.  In  this  case  methyl  orange  indi- 
cator has  been  put  on  the  fabric  to  test  for  the  presence  of  acid.  The 
presence  of  acid  is  indicated  by  the  dark  stain  which  was  red  in 
actuality.  The  action  of  the  acid  has  removed  a  portion  of  the 
fabric  and  tendered  adjacent  areas  as.  is  indicated  by  the  slits  that 
occur  near  the  edges  of  the  holes.  Washing  will  remove  this  tendered 
area.  The  photograph  shows  that  four  layers  of  cloth  have  been 
affected,  each  one  as  we  descend  showing  a  smaller  damaged  area. 
This  is  in  accord  with  the  principle  that  each  layer  receives  less  liquid 
than  the  one  preceding  it  and  is  affected  to  a  correspondingly  less 
degree. 


122 


Corrosive  Materials 

dering.  at  which  time  he  will  have  forgotten  the  incident 
and  as  a  natural  consequence  will  likely  blame  the  laundry. 
The  extent  of  the  sources  of  possible  damage  to  fabrics 
during  the  course  of  wear  and  use  is  not  generally  appreci- 
ated by  the  laundry  patron.  Herein  lies  an  opportunity 
for  progressive  instructional  publicity  among  the  patrons 
and  especially  and  first  among  the  laundry  employees. 

The  Manufacturer. — Local  holes  or  tendered  spots  due 
to  the  chemical  action  of  corrosives  employed  by  the  man- 
ufacturer are  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  According  to 
the  experience  in  the  authors'  laboratory  the  greater  num- 
ber of  cases  in  which  the  manufacturer  has  been  found  to 
be  responsible  for  exhibited  unsatisfactory  service  from  a 
fabric  have  been  of  the  nature  of  spinning  and  weaving 
defects  such  as  those  described  in  Chapter  III.  The  cases 
of  chemical  corrosion  for  which  the  manufacturer  has  been 
found  to  be  responsible  have  been  in  cases  of  over-bleaching 
white  goods,  including  the  souring  treatment,  the  excessive 
or  improper  use  of  mordants,  in  the  corrosive  action  of 
certain  dyes  and  in  the  failure  to  thoroughly  treat  printed 
goods  in  which  the  figures  of  the  design  have  been  effected 
by  the  use  of  stripping  salts. 

In  the  bleaching  of  piece  goods  the  bleacher  employs 
much  more  drastic  treatment  than  is  accorded  the  fabrics 
in  the  power  laundry  process.  He  must  of  necessity  employ 
stronger  souring  bath  than  is  permissible  in  the  laundry. 
He  has  some  advantages  not  possessed  by  the  operator  of 
a  power  laundry  plant.  He  is  not  required  to  repeat  the 
process;  his  bleaching  is  done  in  equipment  that  allows  the 
exclusion  of  air  during  the  boiling  in  the  alkaline  bath 
while  such  precaution  though  desirable  cannot  be  exer- 
cised by  the  commercial  laundry.  In  spite  of  these  advan- 
tages exhibits  of  cotton  goods  tendered  in  the  bleachery  are 
sometimes  encountered.  In  such  cases  the  tendering  is 
usually  evenly  distributed  and,  without  chemical  or  tensile 

123 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 


Fig.  51.  Texdering  Due  to  the  Dyeing.  The  dyeing  process 
used  on  the  black  yarn  in  this  fabric  resulted  in  a  tendering  of  the  yarn. 
The  black  threads  were  readily  removed  by  rubbing  between  the 
fingers,  and  wear  and  laundering  resulted  in  the  removal  of  the  stripes. 


124 


Corrosive  Materials 


4-  f       ^^ 


k      ft.      i 


*■       I 


')    » 


Fig.  52.  Tendering  Due  to  Dyeing.  This  photograph  shows 
the  same  fabric  that  appears  in  Fig.  51  after  the  black  stripe  had  been 
removed  by  laundering  or  rubbing.  Such  damages  can  not  be  credited 
to  the  laundry  process. 


125 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

strength  tests,  the  true  condition  of  the  fabric  is  not  easily 
detected.  There  is  one  way,  however,  in  which  such  con- 
dition is  evidenced  in  the  course  of  laundering.  That  is  in 
the  case  of  ready-made  white  garments,  usually  white 
shirts  in  which  one  piece  of  the  pattern  of  the  garment 
shows  failure  while  the  remaining  portions  of  the  garment 
are  in  good  condition.  This  comes  about  by  the  use  of  one 
bolt  of  cloth  for  one  portion  of  the  garment  and  of  another 
bolt  for  the  remainder,  one  of  the  bolts  being  of  good  cloth 
while  the  other  (of  the  same  design,  of  course)  has  been 
tendered  during  the  bleaching  process.  For  instance,  we 
examined  a  shirt  recently  which  showed  failure  in  one 
sleeve  and  the  section  forming  the  right  front,  while  the  re- 
maining sections  were  sound.  Chemical  tests  showed  that 
all  the  cloth  in  the  affected  sleeve  and  right  front  section 
was  evenly  tendered.  Tensile  strength  tests  also  showed 
even  tendering  on  the  sleeve  and  right  front  section.  There 
could  be  no  condition  under  which  these  results  could  have 
been  brought  about  other  than  the  treatment  of  these  two 
pieces  of  the  garment  before  the  shirt  had  been  sewed  to- 
gether. Cases  similar  to  this  one  are  occasionally  encoun- 
tered in  the  authors'  laboratory. 

The  improper  use  of  mordants  are  more  frequently  en- 
countered. Generally  this  character  of  failure  will  be 
found  in  striped  goods  such  as  shown  in  Figure  51,  wherein 
the  stripe  is  effected  by  means  of  colored  warp  which  has 
been  dyed  in  the  yarn.  In  the  case  represented  by  this 
figure,  the  black  yarn  had  been  tendered  in  the  dyeing  pro- 
cess before  the  cloth  was  woven.  The  remaining  warp  and 
all  the  filling  was  of  good  quality.  No  laundry  process 
could  have  produced  such  an  exhibit  because  all  the  yarn 
was  of  cotton  and  any  reagent  that  would  have  affected  one 
set  of  yarns  would  have  had  a  similar  effect  on  the  other 
set.  The  black  stripe  yarn  was  so  friable  that  the  first 
washing  of  the  garment  produced  the  appearance  of  drawn 
work  shown  in  Figure  52.    The  same  effect  could  be  pro- 

126 


Corrosive  Materials 


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Fig.  53.  CoRROSiox  by  Stripping  Salts.  The  improperly 
governed  action  of  stripping  salts  on  fabrics  is  demonstrated  in  this 
photograph.  This  fabric  possessed  a  blue  background  and  a  pattern 
in  white  dots.  The  whole  fabric  had  been  dyed  blue  and  the  white 
dots  made  by  stamping  on  stripping  salts.  These  salts  were  not 
removed  after  the  desired  decoloration  had  taken  place  and  extended 
their  activities  to  the  fabric  itself.  The  tendered  areas  were  dissolved 
in  the  first  laundering,  leaving  the  fabric  in  this  condition.  The 
responsibility  in  this  case  lies  wholly  with  the  dyer. 


127 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

duced  on  any  of  the  black  stripes  by  simply  rubbing  the 
goods  between  the  fingers.  Such  tendering  of  dyes  in  the 
yarn  warp  may  be  caused  by  the  use  of  excessively  strong 
mordant  solution,  by  failure  to  sufficiently  rinse  the  yarn 
at  the  end  of  the  dyeing  operation,  or  by  the  use  of  certain 
dyes,  notably  the  sulfur  dyes  that  have  an  inherent  ten- 
dency to  produce  tendering  which  under  some  conditions 
becomes  more  pronounced. 

The  figures  in  some  printed  goods,  such  as  bandana 
handkerchiefs  and  the  star  field  of  cheaper  grades  of  our 
national  flag,  are  produced  by  first  dyeing  the  piece  for 
the  background  color  and  later  printing  on  in  pasty  form 
certain  so-called  stripping  salts  which  will  discharge  the 
background  color  leaving  the  figure  white.  The  stripping 
salts  are  of  a  corrosive  nature  and  soon  tendering  of  the 
figure  areas  will  at  best  occur,  and  if,  as  sometimes  happens, 
the  stripping  salts  are  too  strong  or  are  not  thoroughly 
removed  after  having  served  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  applied,  pronounced  tendering  will  result  and  the 
white  figures  will  crumble  away  leaving  holes  in  the  cloth 
where  the  white  figures  ought  to  be.  Such  a  case  is 
pictured  in  Figure  53.  This  fabric  was  a  blue  handker- 
chief with  white  figures.  After  the  first  laundering  the 
blue  portion  of  the  cloth  was  as  strong  as  it  was  originally, 
but  the  white  figures  had  almost  entirely  disappeared. 


128 


CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Treatment  of  Stains. 

IT  IS  thought  advisable  to  include  in  this  book  the 
Procedure  Chart  for  the  Removal  of  Stains  from  Wash 
Goods,  together  with  a  more  complete  discussion  of  the 
preparation  of  the  solutions  involved  and  their  application 
than  was  possible  to  present  in  the  limited  space  of  the 
wall  chart. 

Our  best  advice  to  the  laundryowner  is  that  he  choose 
one  of  his  employees  who  shall  handle  all  stained  fabrics 
which  require  special  treatment.  Such  a  procedure  can 
not  be  urged  too  strongly  because  the  propei  treatment 
of  stains  is  dependent  upon  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
their  physical  and  chemical  characteristics  and  a  thorough 
training  in  the  technic  of  the  application  of  this  knowledge. 
The  physical  characteristics  of  stains  are  differentiated  by 
such  slight  degrees  in  so  many  cases  that  word-pictures 
make  an  impossible  medium  for  instruction;  rather  a  keen- 
ness of  perception  and  a  large  power  of  retention,  combined 
with  the  consistent  application  of  these  faculties  are  nec- 
essary for  the  development  of  a  good  "stain  identifier." 

Having  provided  oneself  with  a  trained  observer,  or 
with  a  person  capable  of  being  trained  to  observe,  the 
thing  to  do  is  to  provide  a  special  work  bench  for  the 
application  of  the  specific  knowledge  of  stain  treatment. 
Only  a  small  bench  will  be  necessary,  say  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  kitchen  table,  but  it  should  be  given  up  entirely 
to  the  work  under  discussion  and  should  be  specially 
equipped.  It  would  be  well  to  remember,  when  choosing 
the  location  of  this  bench,  that  at  times  inflammable 
materials  will  be  used  and  that  no  flames  should  be  in  the 
vicinity. 

129 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

In  the  first  place  it  should  be  placed  in  the  best  light 
obtainable.  This  is  desirable  that  slight  color  differences 
may  be  noted  and  that  final  results  may  be  accurately 
judged  as  complete  or  partial  removal.  If  only  partial 
removal  has  been  effected,  efforts  may  be  renewed  along 
different  lines  until  the  stain  is  completely  removed  or 
until  the  worker  is  convinced  that  the  only  results  possible 
have  been  obtained. 

The  equipment  should  include  all  the  reagents  used  in 
the  identification  and  removal  of  stains  and  any  apparatus 
that  will  facilitate  their  application.  The  reagents  to  be 
desired  are  presented  in  the  table  on  page  131. 

There  should  be  "stock"  bottles  of  each  reagent; 
that  is,  bottles  in  which  the  reagent  is  kept  in  its  original 
condition  and  strength.  These  will  be  handled  only  when 
the  solutions  to  be  used  in  stain  treatment  are  made  up. 
There  should  be  the  bottles  of  solution  that  are  to  be  kept 
on  hand  as  "indicators"  and  as  "testors." 

The  solutions  should  be  carefully  prepared.  There  is 
no  need  for  using  excessively  strong  solutions  because  the 
lessening  of  the  time  factor  by  this  method  means  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  tendency  of  the  solution  to 
tender  the  fabric.  It  is  just  as  profitable  for  the  person 
who  is  removing  stains  "to  increase  the  dose"  as  it  was 
for  the  man  who  increased  the  dose  of  headache  tablets, 
and  died  as  a  consequence.  In  both  cases  the  physical 
condition  of  the  object  under  treatment  is  made  worse 
instead  of  better. 

Oxalic  Acid. — One  ounce  of  oxalic  acid  crystals  are 
dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water.  This  solution  works  more 
rapidly  when  warm.  Always  rinse  carefully  in  clear  water 
after  using  this  acid;  if  traces  of  it  are  left  in  the  fabric  it 
becomes  concentrated  as  the  moisture  evaporates  and 
tenders  the  cloth. 


130 


The  Treatment  of  Stains 


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131 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Acetic  Acid. — This  acid  is  usually  found  in  the  laundry 
as  commercial  56  per  cent,  acetic.  It  can  be  used  in  this 
strength  without  damage  to  the  fabric,  but  it  is  preferable 
to  dilute  it  with  an  equal  amount  of  water.  As  this  acid 
is  volatile,  that  is,  as  it  evaporates  with  the  water,  concen- 
tration does  not  occur  with  drying  and  tendering  does  not 
result  from  insufficient  rinsing. 

Hydrochloric  Acid.  This  acid  should  be  used  in  weak 
solutions,  not  exceeding  a  10  per  cent,  solution.  This  per- 
centage may  be  purchased  from  the  drug  store,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  express  the  percentage  desired  as  it  is 
prepared  for  pharmaceutical  purposes  in  10  per  cent.,  25 
per  cent,  and  37  per  cent,  strengths.  Careful  rinsing  is 
urged  with  this  acid  for  the  same  reason  that  is  given 
under  oxalic  acid. 

Caustic  Soda. — A  5  per  cent,  solution  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  an  ounce  of  the  solid  in  a  pint  of  water.  This 
solution  is  to  be  used  on  cotton  and  linen  fabrics  only  and 
followed  by  a  good  rinsing.  The  concentration  of  the  5 
per  cent,  solution  is  not  detrimental  to  these  fibers  but  in 
greater  concentrations  tendering  is  effected. 

Ammonia. — The  ammonia  sold  by  druggists  is  about 
a  10  per  cent,  solution.  It  will  never  be  found  necessary 
to  use  it  in  this  strength  and  dilution  with  ten  times  its 
volume  of  water  is  advised. 

Javelle  Water.— This  reagent  is  so  well  known  in  the 
laundry  that  no  other  discussion  will  be  given  than 
that  it  is  prepared  as  directed  in  the  L.  N.  A.  "Standard 
Formulas  for  Washroom  Practice,"  Chart  No.  1.  The 
stock  solution  resulting  from  this  formula  should  be 
diluted  at  least  fifty  times  before  using  on  fabrics.  If 
rinsing  is  done  with  dilute  acetic  acid  water  the  activity 
of  the  bleaching  solution  will  be  killed. 


132 


The  Trcatmcni  of  Stains 

Hydrogen  Dioxide. — Commonly  called  hydrogen  per- 
oxide, and  purchased  at  the  drug  store,  this  reagent  may  be 
used  full  strength.  The  commercial  grade  of  hydrogen 
dioxide  usually  contains  a  considerable  percentage  of  free 
sulfuric  acid;  for  this  reason  great  care  should  be  used  in 
rinsing  after  this  reagent  has  been  used.  Due  to  the 
presence  of  this  small  amount  of  acid  that  has  produced 
corrosion  when  used  ignorantly,  the  idea  has  sprung  up  that 
hydrogen  dioxide  itself  is  corrosive.  This  is  not  the  case, 
however,  and  no  hesitancy  should  be  felt  in  using  it  as  a 
stain  remover. 

Potassium  Permanganate. — One  ounce  of  the  crystals 
is  dissoK^ed  in  a  gallon  of  water.  A  stronger  solution  is 
capable  of  burning  the  fabric  as  effectively  as  a  flame,  so 
should  never  be  used. 

Sodium  Perborate. — This  reagent  may  be  used  in  so- 
lutions of  any  strength,  or  made  into  a  paste  with  water 
and  spread  on  the  fabric  to  be  treated. 

Sodium  Bisulfite.- — ^A  saturated  solution  of  this  reagent 
is  prepared  by  adding  it  to  the  water  until  no  more  will  go 
into  solution.  Sodium  bisulfite  is  used  alone  and  in  con- 
nection with  powdered  zinc.  When  zinc  is  used  it  should 
be  put  into  small  bags  so  that  it  will  not  settle  on  the 
fabric  and  leave  a  stain  that  can  only  be  removed  with  an 
accompanying  damage  to  the  fabric. 

Oleic  Acid. — This  reagent  may  be  purchased  under 
the  trade  name  of  "Red  Oil,"  but  an  effective  substitute  for 
it  can  be  prepared  in  the  plant  by  dissolving  some  soap  in 
hot  water,  precipitating  the  fatty  acids  by  acidifying  with 
strong  acid,  heating  till  separation  is  complete  and  then 
cooling.  After  cooling,  the  fatty  acid  will  be  found  as  a 
solid  cake  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

133 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Sodium  Thiosuljate. — Used  in  saturated  solution,  pre- 
pared by  adding  crystals  to  water  until  no  more  can  be  dis- 
solved. 

Potassium  Cyanide. — One  ounce  of  the  crystals  is  dis- 
solved in  a  gallon  of  water.  This  reagent  is  one  of  the 
most  deadly  poisons  known;  therefore  great  care  is  to  be 
observed  in  its  use.  If  any  is  gotten  on  the  hands  they 
should  be  kept  away  from  the  rest  of  the  body  and  from 
the  clothing  until  they  can  be  washed  well.  The  solution 
should  be  thrown  out  immediately  after  the  treatment  is 
completed,  the  utensils  used  with  it  washed  thoroughly, 
and  the  bench  cleaned  of  any  splashings  it  may  have 
received.  If  these  precautions  are  observed  no  fear  need 
be  entertained  concerning  the  use  of  this  reagent. 

The  successful  application  of  these  solutions  requires  a 
few  common  utensils  that  are  listed  herewith: 


Hotplate  (electric  or  gas), 

Nest  of  enameled  bowls, 

Scales, 

Glass  rods  (with  rounded  ends). 

White  blotting  paper. 

The  actual  discussion  of  the  treatment  of  stains  had 
best  be  made  to  follow  the  Procedure  Chart  for  the  Removal 
of  Stains  from  Wash  Goods,  and  will  occupy  the  remainder 
of  this  chapter. 

Albumin. — The  regular  standard  washing  process  in- 
cludes a  lukewarm  first  bath  for  the  purpose  of  dissolving 
any  albuminous  materials  that  may  be  present. 

Blood. — The  albuminous  portion  of  this  stain  is  re- 
moved  in   the  first  bath   of  lukewarm  water;   the  stain 

134 


Procedure  Chart  for  the  Removal  of  Stains 
From  Wash  Goods 


K,™or^*,N           1                     corroN                  |                   Lm.»                       |                     wool                    ^ 

COLORED  CABMH^ 

ALBUMIN. 

R.rT.ov«l  in  th.  .l>ndiud  •■■.hint  pro«». 

™.™.0,«l.™™,.„d. 

BLOOD. 

Romo.«linlh.)t.nd«rd«..hinep«c....    Th.  .lainof  th.h.minlobm  1           R.mov.d  in  Ih.  .t«nd«d  •■"h'n«  Pro«".     TTi.  .lain  ol  h.mof lohln 

fRov;sES'TKlr?Bi'i& 

:^"'"^ 

p„.^;7K:;^tr„t^";""^L"r^u,r■;vsr'£o;^ 

Betin    with    th.    •ImpL.t 

COCOA  AND  CHOCOIATE. 

R,m«v«l  in  Ih.  .t«,d«d  w..hir.,  pr«.... 

pro 

COFFEE. 

CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM. 

„.„....  ,„,H.  ........  ...M.„™... 

MULTICOLORED 

ECC. 

^                                                       K™„..,„.H.  ......  ...K,.„^„.. 

FRUIT. 

— —         ,,;b^eB'^^^-^^^ 

CRASS. 

^.Xz::ij^t^j::^^'xv::.."  -  •'-—■—  ..^Kr^^j-i^a;^"  -  —  -■  -  — -  -•■  - 

^^^Mmi^SiMH  :^^^^;b^^^---^^'^ 

CUM  OR  RESIN. 

..^^yi'z^is;ip^z^^::^;^r^s^;i:^iS:iS^s^ 

WRITING. 
INDELIBLE  PENCIL. 

=;S'!{HHHH;^s:S^3t=2i^1|   ...................................  .o,so.. 

IRON. 

5«lNKSIIRONi. 

IEAT«ER. 

.u,»';'X'S'sj,';:i's;r,™ir.  t".-,.;"""-'  — '""■ '— ■■■  ''"'•■  |    -<•  ■^•'^  <■  ■». — k^*  <•  >—■... ..  u,. ,.«.. 

MACHINE  OIL 

..h.r'™*.'5;rdrr.i:.rs:r'-VS":.™r«'"^^^^^                          "  • '~'"'' — "  ™'— ■'-  —• '"-  » 

iH^^W 

MILDEW. 

..£•;;lJ*;^:v£^=•i,Hfc;?-;^;t:S;:^s'=..3K| 

MUD. 

o,.,^?,:v;:is^^3,:^-:;xr;:;.:r:l^;?^i';r':;s 

-.,.'i  r.,7^^^■;..^„,i''i;nr.;;^^^':L!;'Kax^::i!■.  i™."- 1  ,.„.';.'j';;^.':„;r,r'  -"  °-  -  -"'""■  -""•"«■-•  "'"-" 

iiSS-SrJ^^S 

h-,"!''.'  .'"^^."1^  """"', '"  ""  ■""''■"'  "■■'''"■  ■"°""' '"' 

SYRUP. 

TAR  OR  TARRY. 

TEA. 

TA»»V_.MS,DUI! 

,j^-^£^-^.::£z^vSsL':^^ 

mM^mB&SM  [Edgpss^s 

««»■<=»- 

""^"""" 

.u.«..ful,                                                                                    ".»n.n.  1.  not  .iw.y. 

ssimK;*^. 

:::SiiHS:-=SS^:£^— -— --^^ 

Preparation  of  Solutions  Recommended  for  Use  Above 

The  Treatment  of  Stains 

proper,  which  is  due  to  the  hemoglobin  or  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood,  is  removed  in  the  bleach  bath.  If  the  fabric 
is  of  the  kind  that  can  not  be  treated  with  javelle  water 
the  stain  may  be  treated  with  hydrogen  dioxide. 

Bluing. — Bluing  is  of  three  kinds,  ultramarine  blue 
that  gives  the  desired  color  by  depositing  small  insoluble 
particles  of  blue  on  the  fabric;  prussian  blue  that  dyes  the 
fabric  with  a  soluble  dye;  and  aniline  blue  that  dyes  the 
fabric  with  an  insoluble  dye.  Ultramarine  blue,  which 
only  gives  trouble  by  being  used  too  heavily,  may  be 
removed  by  simple  washing;  Prussian  blue,  which  in  an 
alkaline  bath  is  changed  to  iron  oxide  and  gives  a  rust 
stain,  has  to  be  treated  with  oxalic  acid  solution.  The 
aniline  blues,  if  used  too  freely,  dye  the  fabric  permanently 
as  far  as  the  ordinary  solvent,  water,  is  concerned,  and 
must  be  removed  by  treatment  with  oxidizing  or  reducing 
agents,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  dye  used.  Javelle 
water  or  potassium  permanganate  solution  is  used  to 
oxidize  these  blues  on  cotton  or  linen  fabrics,  while 
potassium  permanganate  solution  or  hydrogen  dioxide 
is  used  on  silk  and  wool.  Sodium  bisulfite  solution  and 
zinc  may  be  used  on  both  the  animal  and  vegetable 
fibers  as  a  reducing  agent.  The  potassium  permanganate 
solution  treatment  is  not  complete  in  itself,  as  it  leaves  a 
brown  stain  of  manganese  dioxide  in  the  cloth  which  must 
be  removed  by  treatment  with  oxalic  acid  solution.  If  it 
is  found  necessary  to  repeat  the  treatment  the  excess 
oxalic  acid  should  be  washed  from  the  fabric  before  more 
permanganate  solution  is  applied.  It  is  always  well  to 
observe  the  precaution  of  rinsing  from  the  fabric  any 
excess  of  solution  when  two  solutions  are  alternated, 
because  the  excess  of  solution  present  reacts  to  neutralize 
the  effect  of  the  other  solution  in  a  manner  that  has  no 
effect  in  the  removal  of  the  stain.  There  is  no  need  for 
such  useless  reactions. 


135 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate. — These  stains  occur  in  most  cases 
on  white  table  linens  and,  when  too  deep  to  be  removed  by 
the  water  and  soap,  are  removed  by  the  bleach  bath. 

Coffee. — Javelle  water,  applied  in  the  bleach  bath, 
removes  this  stain  effectively. 

Cream  and  Ice  Cream. — The  principal  ingredient  that 
causes  trouble  in  this  type  of  stains  is  the  butter  fat  present. 
When  this  is  removed  with  hot  water  and  soap  the  stain 
is  usually  gone  completely.  In  the  case  of  an  ice  cream 
that  has  fresh  fruit  juice  or  a  food  dye  present  as  coloring 
matter  the  stain  will  be  removed  by  javelle  water. 

Dyes. — The  treatment  for  a  dye  stain  has  always  to  be 
determined  by  a  few  tests  on  some  portion  of  the  stained 
fabric.  The  first  trial  may  be  made  with  javelle  water; 
then  with  permanganate  solution,  then  with  sodium 
bisulfite  solution  and  zinc.  The  kind  of  material  involved 
and  the  dye  itself  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration  for 
the  successful  treatment  of  this  type  of  a  stain.  The 
removal  of  hat  dyes  is  facilitated  by  treatment  with  95 
per  cent,  ethyl  alcohol,  in  which  the  greater  portion  of  the 
dye  is  soluble.  A  residual  stain  may  have  to  be  treated 
with  one  of  the  oxidizing  or  reducing  agents  prescribed  on 
the  chart. 

Egg. — This  stain  is  partly  albuminous,  partly  fatty, 
and,  in  most  cases,  will  be  removed  by  a  formula  that 
includes  a  lukewarm  first  bath  and  hot  suds. 

Fruit. — Fruit  stains  can  readily  be  removed  by  treat- 
ment with  javelle  water;  for  that  reason  the  stains  appear- 
ing in  cotton  and  linen  garments  are  said  to  be  removed  in 
the  standard  washing  process.  Silks  and  wools  are  to  be 
treated  with  the  reagents  given  in  the  chart  that  are  not 
detrimental  to  them. 

136 


The  Treatment  of  Stains 

Grass. — This  stain  is  also  removed  from  cotton  and 
linen  by  treatment  with  javelle  water.  Silks  and  wools 
are  treated  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ethyl  alcohol 
and  ethyl  ether.  This  is  a  solvent  for  the  green  dye 
present  in  grass. 

Grease. — The  av^erage  grease  stain  is  removed  in  the 
standard  washing  process.  Any  stain  that  survives  this 
treatment  may  be  softened  with  oleic  acid  and  lard  and 
washed  in  a  hot  solution  of  soda  ash.  If  the  grease  has 
contained  a  mineral  staining  agent  like  iron  or  some  type 
of  dyestuff  it  can  be  treated  specially  as  described  under 
these  headings.  The  best  treatment  to  be  accorded  to 
silks  and  wools  is  with  one  of  the  many  grease  solvents 
given  on  the  chart.  The  solubilities  of  the  different  types 
of  grease  vary  with  the  different  solvents,  and  it  is  often 
necessary  to  experiment  with  several  solvents  before  the 
more  efficacious  is  found. 

Gum  or  Resin. — The  type  of  the  gum  or  resin  decides 
the  solvent  that  should  be  used.  Common  chewing  gum 
is  soluble  in  carbon  tetrachloride;  varnish  is  soluble  in 
alcohol;  resins  are  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol  and  tur- 
pentine, the  source  of  the  resin  determining  which 
solvent  is  best.  Since  there  is  no  way  to  decide  which 
resin  is  present,  the  method  of  trial  and  error  must  be 
applied  to  discover  which  solvent  is  to  be  used. 

Ink. — Iron  inks  are  best  removed  by  treatment  with 
warm  oxalic  acid.  If  such  treatment  does  not  remove  the 
stain  completely  it  is  possible  that  the  ink  has  been  a 
mixture  of  iron  ink  and  an  aniline  dye,  in  which  case  a 
second  treatment  with  javelle  water  is  necessary.  India 
ink  and  printers  ink  are  both  suspensions  of  carbon  in  a 
gum-like  medium,  and  should  be  removed  in  the  regular 
laundering  process.     If  such  treatment  is  not  effective  the 

137 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

stain  may  be  loosened  with  lard  and  laundered  again. 
Silver  nitrate  inks  have  to  be  treated  with  sodium  thio- 
sulfate  or  with  javelle  water.  Javelle  water  converts  the 
silver  to  an  insoluable  colorless  salt  that  has  to  be  removed 
by  treatment  with  dilute  ammonia  water.  If  this  pre- 
caution is  not  taken  the  silver  may  again  oxidize  to  the 
colored  salt  and  the  stain  reappear.  Indelible  pencils 
contain  both  graphite  and  an  aniline  dye;  the  dye  can  be 
removed  by  treatment  with  javelle  water,  while  the  graphite 
will  be  washed  away  mechanically. 

Iron. — The  specific  treatment  for  iron  stains  is  warm 
oxalic  acid  solution. 

Leather. — Javelle  water  has  been  found  to  remove 
these  stains  from  the  cotton  and  linen  fabrics,  but  in  the 
case  of  silks  and  wools  the  stain  is  permanent. 

Medicines. — The  medicines  containing  organic  ma- 
terials are  usually  removed  in  the  regular  laundry  process; 
any  stain  surviving  this  treatment  can  be  treated  with 
javelle  water.  The  medicines  containing  salts  of  the 
heavy  metals,  like  iron,  silver,  etc.,  may  be  treated  with 
potassium  cyanide.  The  cyanides  of  these  metals  are 
water  soluble  and  are  removed  by  means  of  this  solvent 
after  conversion  has  taken  place. 

Mildew. — These  stains  are  usually  removed  in  the 
standard  washing  process,  but  heavy  stains  may  have  to 
be  treated  alternately  with  javelle  water  and  oxalic  acid. 

Mud. — ^The  mud  itself  is  removed  in  the  regular  water 
washing  but  a  residual  stain  of  iron  is  often  encountered. 
This  is  treated  as  all  iron  stains  are,  with  warm  oxalic  acid. 

Paint  and  Varnish. — These  stains  are  best  removed 
before  laundering.     They  may  be  loosened  by  treatment 

138 


"  The  Treatment  of  Stains 

with  oleic  acid  and  then  laundered  or  they  may  be  treated 
with  one  of  the  solvents  that  are  given  in  the  table  of 
reagents.  The  character  of  the  paint  determines  the 
treatment  applied.  Paints  are  composed  of  some  vehicle 
and  a  pigment;  the  vehicle  hardens  or  sets  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  some  volatile  ingredient  or  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  from  the  air,  depending  upon  its  chemical  nature. 
The  pigment  can  be  removed  mechanically  after  the  vehicle 
carrying  it  is  dissolved  again. 

Perspiration. — This  stain,  being  water  borne,  is  usually 
removed  by  simple  soap  and  water  washing.  If  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  running  of  a  dye,  treatment  for  the  dye 
must  be  applied.  Colored  goods  that  have  been  discolored 
by  perspiration  may  sometimes  be  restored  by  sponging 
with  weak    acid  or  alkaline  solutions. 

Scorch. — Scorched  cotton  or  linen  may  be  restored  by 
treatment  with  javelle  water  alternated  with  oxalic  acid 
solution,  provided  the  scorch  has  not  completely  destrpyed 
some  of  the  fabric.  The  same  results  may  also  be  obtained 
with  potassium  permanganate  and  sodium  bisulfite 
solutions.  Light  scorches  on  silk  and  wool  may  be  partially 
restored  by  treatment  with  permanganate  solution,  but 
nothing  can  be  done  for  heavy  scorches  on  these  fabrics. 

Syrup. — -Syrup  stains  are  usually  removed  in  the 
standard  washing  process  because  the  medium  of  the 
stain,  the  sugar,  is  removed.  If  a  fruit  juice  has  been 
present,  some  stain  may  survive  this  process  but  the 
treatment  described  under  Fruit  will  remove  it  satis- 
factorily. 

Tar  and  Tarry. — See  treatment  of  paint. 

Tea. — Tea  stains  are  usually  removed  in  the  washing 
process,  but  the  occasional  heavy  one  should   be  treated 

139 


The  Conscrvaiion  of  Textiles 

with  javelle  water  when  it  appears  on  cotton  and  Hnen 
and  with  potassium  permanganate  or  hydrogen  dioxide 
when  it  appears  on  silk  or  wool.  This  stain  is,  in  most 
cases,  the  result  of  the  tannin  present  in  the  tea  but  in 
some  cases  is  due  to  a  dye  that  is  added  to  give  a  darker 
color  to  the  infusion. 

Tobacco. — The  stains  from  tobacco  are  usually  soluble 
in  the  standard  washing  process,  but  occasionally  stains 
that  require  longer  treatment  are  encountered.  They  may 
be  treated  with  the  oxidizing  agents  that  are  permissible 
with  the  type  of  fabric  involved  or  they  may,  in  case  of  the 
tarry  residue  from  pipes,  be  treated  with  ethyl  alcohol. 

Turmeric. — This  is  oneof  the  seven  dyes  permitted  by 
the  U.  S.  Pure  Food  law  to  be  used  in  food  stuffs.  They 
are  usually  to  be  removed  by  treatment  with  javelle  water 
or  permanganate  solution,  but  in  cases  that  do  not  respond 
to  this  treatment  amyl  alcohol  will  be  found  efTective. 

Verdigris  or  Copper  Stains. — This  stain,  if  not  removed 
by  the  usual  laundry  process,  has  to  be  treated  quite 
drastically  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  If  only  a  weak 
solution  of  acid  is  used  and  care  is  taken  to  remove  all 
traces  of  it  afterwards,  no  ill  results  will  be  noticed. 

Walnut. — This  stain  is  one  of  the  worst  encountered 
on  fabrics.  It  can  usually  be  reduced  to  a  light  gray  color 
on  cotton  and  linen  by  treatment  with  javelle  water,  but 
when  it  appears  on  silk  and  wool  no  treatment  can  be 
recommended. 

Wax. — The  most  satisfactory  method  of  removing 
waxes  from  fabrics  is  to  place  the  spot  on  a  piece  of  blotting 
paper  and  apply  a  warm  iron.  The  heat  liquifies  the  wax 
and  the  blotting  paper  absorbs  it.  If  traces  remain  after 
this  treatment  they  may  be  sponged  away  with  one  of  the 
organic  solvents. 

140 


The  Treatment  of  Stains 

In  conclusion,  it  is  appropriate  to  suggest  that  inspec- 
tion of  garments  for  stains  be  rigidly  maintained  in  the 
receiving  room.  Many  times  stains  are  set  in  laundering 
and  offer  a  much  greater  problem  for  removal  then  they 
otherwise  would. 


141 


CHAPTER  VII. 
The  Conservation  of  Fabrics. 

ADEQUATE,  definite  information  regarding  the  length 
of  time  a  fabric  should  last  under  normal  conditions  of 
use  is  almost  entirely  lacking.  This  is  true  in  the  first 
place  because  of  the  infinite  variation  in  the  quality  of 
cloth  and  in  the  second  place  because  of  no  accepted 
meaning  of  the  expression  "normal  conditions  of  use."  A 
number  of  observations  on  the  life  of  certain  hotel  linen 
supplies  have  been  recorded  in  various  reports  from  the 
authors'  laboratory.  We  have,  also,  a  series  of  observa- 
tions of  the  life  of  standard  brands  of  collars,  and  compara- 
tive tests  of  the  effect  of  power  laundry  practice  compared 
with  that  of  the  housewife  and  the  Chinese  laundry.  We 
have  observed  and  recorded  the  effects  of  the  various 
processes  in  laundering,  such  as  the  mechanical  effect  of 
the  power  washing  machine  operated  under  conditions 
outlined  in  the  Manual  of  Standard  Washroom  Formulas 
published  in  May,  1918,  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Laundryowners  National  Associaion.  We  have  deter- 
mined the  effect  of  each  of  the  standard  washroom  reagents 
under  the  best  conditions  and  under  the  less  favorable 
conditions.  It  is  a  discouraging  observation  resulting 
from  a  recent  test,  that  the  membership  of  the  Association 
has  not  made  a  very  marked  success  in  the  endeavor 
toward  standardization  of  washroom  methods.  In  the 
test  referred  to  a  number  of  the  same  brand  of  new  soft 
collars  were  sent  to  a  number  of  different  laundries  over 
the  country  and  upon  their  return  the  shrinkage  was 
measured.  The  results  were  distinctly  at  wide  variance. 
This  is,  by  the  way,  to  illustrate  that  complete  protection  of 

142 


The  Conservation  of  Fabrics 

laundries  from  unjust  claims  can  not  be  had  until  plant 
operation  methods  in  general  are  placed  on  a  better  plane. 
The  old  saying  that  the  good  suffer  with  the  evil  is  truly 
applicable  to  laundries. 

In  the  October,  1918,  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Laundryowners  National  Association,  and  in  Chapter  V 
of  this  contribution,  a  method  was  proposed  wherein  all 
laundries  of  the  association  could  assist  in  the  collection 
of  the  needed  data  as  to  the  expectancy  (to  borrow  an 
expression  from  life  insurance  literature)  of  various  standard 
fabrics  and  garments.  There  has  been  little  response  to 
this  suggestion  up  to  the  present  time,  very  likely  due  to 
the  difficulties  involved  in  mixing  research  work  of  this 
character  with  the  commercial  plant  operation.  Obviously 
these  data  cannot  all  be  obtained  in  the  laboratory.  The 
most  marked  progress  in  this  direction  awaits  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Model  Laundry  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Laundering.  Some  useful  information  regarding  the  life  of 
certain  fabric  articles  worn  by  soldiers  may  be  secured  later 
through  some  observations  that  have  been  started  by  the 
Salvage  branch  of  the  U.  S.  Army.  It  will  be  a  marked 
achievement  when  we  can  say  that  a  cloth  weighing  so 
many  ounces  per  square  yard  and  having  so  many  "ends" 
and  so  many  "picks"  and  such  and  such  tensile  strength 
when  used  for  a  certain  purpose  will  survive  so  many 
launderings.  We  will  then  be  in  a  position  to  give  recom- 
mendations to  some  of  the  large  users  of  textiles  and  to 
assist  hotel  managers  in  preparing  specifications  for  the 
linen  supply  of  their  establishments. 

Having  all  the  information  that  it  will  be  possible  to 
get  regarding  what  does  constitute  a  good  textile  fabric, 
the  laundryowner  will  still  further  need  a  means  of  pro- 
tecting himself  against  articles  which  appear  to  be  of  good 
quality,  but  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  defective  in  one 
way  or  another  as  described  in  previous  chapters.  This 
means  will  be  found  in  bringing  about  a  greater  discrimin- 

143 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

ation  in  purchasing  on  the  part  of  the  users  of  textile 
fabrics.  The  thought  also  suggests  legislation  for  the 
correct  labeling  of  fabrics,  but  this  will  be  discussed  else- 
where 

The  Three  Agencies  of  Responsibility. — Evidence  af- 
forded by  a  large  number  of  exhibits  that  from  time  to 
time  have  been  submitted  to  the  authors'  Department, 
show  conclusively  that  if  the  textile  articles  were  purchased 
wisely,  with  the  adaptibility  to  the  proposed  use  definitely 
in  mind,  and  that  if  these  fabrics  honestly  repiesented 
the  quality  they  appear  to  represent,  and  if  the  fabrics  were 
not  abused  during  the  course  of  use  or  wear,  claims  for 
damage  against  the  laundry  would  be  reduced  ninety-five 
per  cent.  That  is  to  say  that  less  than  five  per  cent,  of  the 
damage  claims  with  which  the  authors  have  had  to  do  are 
attributable  to  causes  for  which  the  laundry  held  direct 
responsibility.  This  statement  should  be  taken  in  the 
light  of  the  fact  that  in  cases  wherein  the  laundry  is 
obviously  responsible  the  exhibit  would  seldom  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  authors.  When  we  find  evidence,  as  we 
sometimes  do,  that  the  responsibility  is  probably  charge- 
able to  the  laundry,  the  laundryowner  is  plainly 
advised  to  that  effect.  At  the  same  time  are  presented 
any  suggestions  that  we  may  be  able  to  ofifer,  the  consistent 
application  of  which  would  tend  to  preclude  the  recurrence 
of  the  trouble. 

The  three  agencies  of  responsiblity  for  the  satisfactory 
conservation  of  textile  fabrics  are  plainly  the  manufacturer, 
including  the  manufacturer  of  the  cloth  as  well  as  the 
fabricator  of  the  garment;  the  owner  of  the  article  whose 
responsibility  includes  the  exercising  of  discretion  in  making 
the  purchase,  in  which  responsibility,  to  some  extent  the 
retailer  shares,  as  well  as  in  the  exercising  of  due  precaution 
in  protecting  the  article  from  severe  mechanical  strains 
and  from  strong  alkaline  and  oxidizing  materials  if  it  be  of 
animal  fiber,  and  from  acids  and  oxidizers  if  it  be  of  vege- 

144 


The  Conservation  of  Fabrics 

table  fiber;  and  the  launderer  whose  duty,  obviously,  is 
to  renov^ate  the  textile  with  the  least  possible  depreciation 
of  tensile  strength  consistent  with  the  standard  of  quality 
of  work  demanded  by  the  trade.  This  responsibility  of 
the  launderer  is  implied  by  the  mere  acceptance  of  the 
soiled  linen.  The  authors  again  feel  constrained  to  urge 
careful  examination  of  fabrics  on  their  arrival  at  the 
laundry  plant  so  that  the  limits  of  the  responsibility  of  the 
launderer  may  be  accurately  defined. 

To  obtain  the  harmonious  functioning  of  these  three 
agencies  is  an  objective  worthy  of  the  efforts  of  a  great 
trade  organization.  If  we,  as  members  of  the  trade,  are 
sincere  in  our  expressed  belief  that  the  industry  constitutes 
a  public  utility  and  that  the  only  commodity  distributed 
is  service,  it  follows  without  argument  that  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  life  of  the  fabric  laundered  is  the  matter  of 
prime  importance.  If  this  matter  is  cared  for  persistently 
the  questions  of  the  success  of  any  individual  enterprise 
and  of  adequate  profits  will  be  automatically  included  and 
the  advancement  of  the  industry  to  a  more  comprehensive 
contact  with  the  homes  will  be  assured.  Certainly  we 
should  coordinate  the  scientific  knowledge  concerning  the 
other  aspects  of  the  service  so  that  adequate  but  fair 
revenue  will  be  secured  to  sustain  the  business  on  a  sound 
financial  basis.  Leaving  out  for  the  present  the  con- 
sideration of  financial  features,  as  important  as  they  are, 
let  us  consider  in  what  way  we,  as  an  Association,  may  be 
able  to  improve  the  conditions  over  which  the  two  agencies 
other  than  ourselves  have  the  more  direct  control.  This 
means  the  exertion  of  cooperative  influences  on  the  organi- 
zations and  individuals  controlling  the  factors  outside  the 
laundry  that  affect  the  life  of  fabrics.  In  this  we  will  con- 
sider the  retailer  as  merely  an  agent  of  the  producer, 
textile  manufacturer  and  garment  fabricator.  Emphasis 
should   be  placed  on   the  responsibilities  of   the  garment 


145 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

maker,  for  the  laundryowner  has  suffered  quite  as  much 
on  account  of  his  shortcomings  as  on  account  of  those  of 
the  spinners  and  weavers.  This  is  notably  true  in  the 
case  of  palm  beach  suits,  wherein  cases  of  poor  tailoring 
are  as  frequently  evident  as  are  cases  of  poor  quality  of 
cloth.  The  producers  of  textiles  are  not  usually  accessible 
to  the  users  or  laundryowners  while  the  retailer  is.  It 
would  therefore  appear  that  the  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  retailers  should  be  cultivated. 

The  Retail  Merchant. — There  is  a  national  association 
of  retail  dry  goods  merchants.  Some  of  the  membership 
of  the  Laundry  Association  in  every  town  and  city  are  in 
contact  with  members  of  the  retailers'  associations  through 
Rotary  Clubs  and  other  organizations  nearly  every  day. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  retailer  to  serve  the  same 
clientelle  that  is  served  by  the  laundry.  He  should, 
therefore,  be  shown  just  wherein  his  interests  overlap 
those  of  the  laundryowner.  Such  mutual  under- 
standing that  is  sure  to  result  from  the  right  kind  of 
contact  will  assist  in  the  movement  for  legislation  for  the 
correct  labeling  of  fabrics.  It  is  our  purpose  in  the 
following  paragraphs  to  present  some  suggestions  which, 
if  carefully  and  tactfully  put  into  execution  by  the  laundry- 
owners  in  the  various  communities,  would  lead  to  im- 
provements in  both  trades  and  finally  would  result  in  a 
great  benefit  to  the  public. 

If  the  laundryowner  would  have  the  sympathetic 
interest  of  the  retailer  he  must  give  sympathic  hearing  to 
the  troubles  of  the  retailer.  Always  there  are  two  sides 
to  every  question.  We  must  realize  that  all  the  materials 
that  enter  into  a  textile  fabric  cannot  be  invariably  of  the 
best  quality.  Furthermore,  the  fallibility  of  human  hands 
is  a  condition  obtaining  in  the  textile  and  garment  indus- 
tries as  well  as  in  the  laundry  industry.  We  must  be  fair 
and  open  minded.  We  know  that  large  quantities  of 
shoddy  must  be  used  or,  otherwise,  there  would  not  be 

146 


The  Conservation  of  Fabrics 

enough  wool  to  meet  the  demands.  We  know  that  the 
cotton  that  must  be  made  into  cloth  cannot  all  be  grown 
in  the  Mississippi  Delta.  Some  of  it  must  be  grown  on 
the  uplands  of  our  Southern  states  where  nature  does  not 
produce  the  long  staple  variety.  In  spite  of  these  facts, 
however,  we  should,  by  vividly  portraying  the  reasons, 
bring  it  about  that  the  short  staple  should  be  used  in  the 
tightly  spun  and  tighly  woven  fabrics  in  which  its  use  is, 
from  a  conservation  standpoint,  satisfactory,  instead  of  in 
other  designs  of  cloth  in  which  its  use,  for  reasons  pointed 
out  in  Chapter  II,  constitutes  almost  criminal  waste. 

Also  we  must  realize  that  the  operations  of  spinning, 
weaving,  bleaching,  and  dyeing  in  the  textile  mills  are  not 
without  their  difficulties.  Mistakes  will  occur  to  some 
extent  in  these  operations.  It,  therefore,  follows  that  in 
order  to  avoid  an  unbearable  loss  or  a  prohibitive  price  for 
the  perfect  product  of  the  mills  some  defective  fabrics  must 
be  marketed.  Our  Committee  on  Legislation  for  the 
Correct  Labelling  of  Fabrics  has  realized  this  circum- 
stance all  along.  The  Committee  does  not  wish  to  restrict 
the  honest  producer.  Its  object  is  rather  to  bring  about 
conditions  under  which  deceptions  could  be  less  readily 
perpetrated  on  the  dealers  and  in  turn  on  the  buying 
public  so  that  the  laundryowner  as  a  consequence  would 
be  relieved  from  the  blame  that  is  unjustly  attributed  to 
him  from  these  sources.  Elsewhere  we  have  pictured  a 
"scratch  up."  (See  figure  39.)  "Scratch  ups"  occur  in 
seconds  which  are  sold  over  the  bargain  counters.  If  it 
were  required  that  seconds  be  labeled  as  seconds  so  that 
the  buyer  would  know  that  the  cloth  contained  some 
defect  or  other  a  great  measure  of  protection  would  be 
afforded  the  purchaser.  Protecting  the  purchaser  in  this 
case  would  also  be  protecting  the  laundryowner. 

Some  dyes,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  Chapters  IV 
and  V,  are  known  to  have  a  marked  tendency  to  tender 
fibers.     It    should    be   the    laundryowner 's    endeavor   to 

147 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

familiarize  the  retailer  as  well  as  his  own  employees  and 
the  laundry  patrons  with  these  facts. 

Styles  in  fabrics  constitute  a  factor  influencing  con- 
servation, which  under  present  conditions,  is  even  more 
than  any  of  the  other  factors  without  the  range  of  our 
control.  The  buyers  for  the  large  dry  goods  stores, 
however,  are  able  to  mitigate  to  a  large  extent  some  of  the 
evils  resulting  from  ill  adaption  of  cloth  to  the  purpose  of 
the  garment.  For  instance,  through  the  accumulated 
effect  of  constructive  advertising  on  the  part  of  the  laundry- 
owners  and  other  general  public — education  on  textile 
matters,  which  by  the  way,  has  already  acquired  con- 
siderable momentum  through  such  instrumentalities  as  the 
domestic  science  schools  and  popular  journals  devoted  to 
the  household  arts, — combined  with  the  sort  of  cooperation 
between  the  laundryowners  and  the  retailers  as  suggested 
herein  and  in  the  July,  1920,  number  of  the  Laundryowners 
National  Association  Bulletin,  the  buyers  for  the  retail 
store  could  be  lead  to  select  for  their  stocks  fewer  jacquard 
designs  in  light  mercerized  cotton  cloth  for  pajamas.  (See 
figures  16,  17,  18  and  19.)  Also,  through  such  instru- 
mentalities as  are  suggested  here  the  purchasers  of  table 
fabrics  would  come  to  the  realization  that  jacquard  designs 
in  cotton  and  mercerized  cotton  table  cloths  must,  to  be 
serviceable,  be  made  of  yarn  tightly  spun  from  long  staple 
cotton  and  be  woven  in  patterns  requiring  comparatively 
short  floats.  When  the  managers  of  homes,  hotels  and 
restaurants  come  to  be  more  descriminating  in  the  pur- 
chase of  table  fabrics  a  great  source  of  annoyance  will  be 
removed  from  the  laundryowners. 

To  help  spread  popular  interest  in  discriminative 
buying  of  textiles  is  a  privilege  which  should  be  exercised 
by  every  man  in  the  laundry  industry.  He  should  not 
neglect  the  opportunities  afforded  by  his  membership  in 
business  men's  organizations.  The  illustrations  contained 
in  this  book  are  available  to  members  of  the  Laundry- 

148 


TJic  Conservation  of  Fabrics 

owners  National  Association  in  the  form  of  lantern  slides. 
They  should  be  used  for  the  good  influence  that  the  infor- 
mation therein  portrayed  will  have  on  both  the  sellers 
and  users  of  fabrics.  When  this  is  done  the  avowed  ideal 
of  the  industry  to  effectively  serve  their  patrons  will  be 
more  quickly  attained.  The  tune  must  be  raised  by  the 
laundryowners  themselves,  then  others  will  sing  their 
praises. 

In  association  work,  however,  we  are  repeatedly  re- 
minded that  we  must  deal  with  people  and  conditions 
largely  as  they  are  and  that  perhaps  we  can  afford  to 
spend  only  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  our  efforts  in 
trying  to  promote  the  ideal.  Our  first  interest,  therefore, 
is  to  fortify  the  laundry  management  and  the  plant  personnel 
with  the  facts  presented  in  the  preceding  chapters,  so  that 
in  case  of  unjust  damage  claims  it  will  be  more  easy  to 
point  out  to  the  patron  just  why  the  responsibility  is  his 
or  that  of  the  manufacturer  of  the  fabric  or  garment. 

Abuse  of  Fabrics  by  Users.— Difficulties  in  the  way  of 
the  attainment  of  ideals  should  not  deter  the  conscientious 
from  persistent  effort.  The  adjustment  of  claims  on  the 
basis  of  accurately  determined  evidence  will  lead,  in  time, 
to  a  better  understanding  on  the  part  of  the  users  of 
fabrics,  of  the  ordinary  and  accidental  hazards.  It  is  not 
within  the  scope  of  this  book  to  discuss  the  advertising 
and  publicity  needs  of  the  laundry  industry  but  some 
phase  of  the  requirements,  if  not  the  details  of  the  methods 
to  be  employed,  can  not  escape  our  attention.  Certainly 
the  industry  could  profit  by  receiving  better  cooperation 
from  the  patrons.  It  is  distinctly  to  its  advantage  to 
have  spread  a  better  knowledge  regarding  the  proper  care 
of  fabrics  in  use.  This  is  true  not  only  of  fabrics  that 
are  included  in  the  family  wash  but  especially  so  con- 
cerning the  so-called  commercial  work.  Restaurant, 
small  hotel  and  linen  supply  goods  are  notably  abused. 

149 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

The  use  of  dish  towels  for  general  mopping  purposes 
in  the  kitchen  after  they  have  become  too  soiled  for  their 
further  use  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  made, 
thereby  rendering  necessary  drastic  treatment  in  the 
washing  process,  shortens  the  life  of  this  particular  article 
more  than  any  other  one  factor.  Likewise  the  transference 
of  slightly  soiled  table  napkins  (notably  cheap  restaurant 
practice)  to  the  use  of  common  wiping  rags  is  one  of  the 
great  causes  of  short  life  for  this  article.  The  use  of  toilet 
supply  towels  for  wiping  shoes  curtails  their  maximum 
length  of  service.  The  autombile  storage  battery,  certain 
toilet  articles  and  medicines  which  are  enemies  to  textiles 
are  enumerated  in  Tables  I  and  II  in  Chapter  V.  Re- 
gardless of  the  advertising  or  publicity  methods  to  be 
employed,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  laundry  trade  to  acquaint 
the  patrons  regarding  these  factors  outside  the  laundry 
that  operate  against  the  maximum  life  of  garments  and 
household  linens. 

In  households  wherein  the  laundering  is  done  in  the 
home  it  has  been  observed  that  greater  care  is  usually 
taken  to  avoid  severe  staining  and  exposure  to  other 
wearing  hazards.  The  fact  that  the  responsibility  of 
laundering  is  taken  from  the  home  seems  to  prove  conducive 
to  carelessness  in  the  use  of  household  textiles. 

Responsibility  of  the  Laundry. — The  experiments  of  the 
authors  to  determine  the  best  methods  of  washroom  pro- 
cedure,, the  results  of  which  were  published  in  the  May, 
1918,  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  Laundryowners 
National  Association,  were  conducted  with  the  idea  con- 
stantly in  mind  of  causing  the  least  wear  and  tear  to  the 
fabrics  consistent  with  the  quality  of  work  demanded  by 
the  patrons.  The  summation  and  suggested  application 
of  all  this  work  was  presented  in  the  Bulletin  but  some 
features  were  given  more  detailed  account  elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  June  14,  1917,  number  of  the  Scientific 

150 


The  Conservation  of  Fabrics 

American  Supplement.  Some  things,  however,  will  bear 
repeating  here.  The  greatest  degree  of  selective  treatment 
consistent  with  commercial  plant  operation  should  be  made 
with  respect  to  strength  and  texture  of  the  cloth  to  be 
laundered  and  with  respect  to  the  extent  of  soiling  they 
bear.  In  this  point  lies  the  greatest  advantage  which  the 
washwoman  has  over  the  power  laundry.  Our  experience 
shows,  however,  that  she  has  compensating  disadvantages. 
In  respect  to  selective  treatment  the  power  laundry  can 
only  approach  the  latitude  enjoyed  by  the  laundress,  if 
indeed  she  be  a  good  laundress.  When  a  good  laundress 
picks  up  a  fragile  garment  she  handles  it  with  special  care 
and  as  a  result  she  is  able  to  get  from  a  fabric  that  is  nearly 
worn  out  a  few  more  periods  of  service  than  if  the  same 
garment  were  washed  as  it  would  have  to  be  washed  in 
a  commercial  laundry.  For  the  consolation  of  the  trade 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  such  good  laundresses  are 
hard  to  find.  In  the  case  of  fine  goods  most  laundries  now 
make  careful  selection  and  accord  the  fabric  the  treatment 
it  requires. 

The  selection  with  respect  to  the  dirtiness  of  the 
fabric  to  be  laundered  is  not,  according  to  the  authors' 
observations,  so  thoroughly  carried  out  in  the  power 
laundry  as  is  usually  the  case  with  a  careful  washwomen. 
The  extended  use  of  the  home  washing  machine  is  taking 
away  from  home  laundering  even  this  advantage,  excepting 
to  the  degree,  as  pointed  out  above,  that  in  such  households 
the  incentive  to  care  for  the  clothes  in  use  is  generally 
accentuated.  We  have  urged  that  commercial  fiat  work 
that  is  slightly  soiled  should  be  given  a  shorter  treatment 
than  is  necessary  for  the  regular  run  of  flat  work. 

In  addition  to  correct  washing  formulas,  proper 
classification  for  selective  treatment  and  rigid  inspection 
for  defects  and  corrosions  detectable  on  the  soiled  goods 
before  they  are  laundered,  good  laundry  management  also 
implies  the  selection  of  dependable  workmen.     We  have 

151 


TJic  Conservation  of  Textiles 

all  observed  damages  which  were  the  results  of  careless 
handling  of  the  goods  in  transferring  them  from  the  washer 
to  the  extractor  and  from  the  extractor  to  the  truck. 
Slipping  driving-belts  on  the  washing  machine  that  cause 
the  tangling  of  the  goods  should  be  guarded  against. 
Improper  loading  of  the  extractors  often  results  in  torn 
fabrics.  Some  cases  of  tearing  by  too  vigorous  a  pull  of 
the  garment  over  the  press,  especially  on  the  shirt  bosom 
press,  have  come  to  the  authors'  attention.  Exposed  or 
projecting  bolt  or  screw  heads,  lodged  nails  and  pins  and 
the  catching  of  marking  pins  are  sources  of  occasional 
damage  to  fabrics  that  should  be  looked  for  and  avoided 
in  the  wheels  and  tumblers.  These  are  details  that 
should  never  be  overlooked.  The  magnitude  of  the  job 
of  running  a  laundry  successfully  is  recognized,  but  we 
believe  all  the  suggestions  herein  presented  are  pertinent 
to  the  production  of  good  laundry  service,  the  only  kind  of 
service  that  is  worthy  of  merit  and  that  will  receive 
praise  from  the  patrons. 


152 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Pure  Fabric  Legislation  and  the  Department 
of  Chemical  Engineering. 

At  the  Twenty-ninth  Convention  of  the  Laundry- 
owners  National  Association,  held  in  Detroit  in  1912,  by 
action  of  the  Executive  Committee,  there  was  created  a 
standing  Committee  on  Legislation  for  the  Correct  Labeling 
of  Fabrics.  The  contributor  of  this  chapter  has  served  as 
Chairman  of  this  Committee  since  its  establishment.  The 
purposes,  both  primary  and  incidental,  are  on  record  in  the 
various  numbers  of  the  L.  N.  A.  Year  Book*,  to  which 
those  readers  who  are  interested  in  the  detailed  history 
of  the  efforts  toward  pure  fabric  legislation  are  referred,  but 
it  is  in  place  to  point  out  here  some  of  the  salient  features 
of  the  progress  of  the  work. 

As  the  designation  of  the  Committee  implies,  the  primary 
objective  of  the  work  undertaken  was  to  secure  protective 
legislation  which  should  result  in  minimizing  the  possibility 
of  deceptive  practices  in  the  manufacturing  and  distribution 
of  textiles  and  garments.  While  the  interest  of  the  laundry 
industry  in  such  an  endeavor  would  appear  to  be  quite 
obvious,  it  developed  that  the  committee  had  to  assume  an 
incidental  function,  certain  educational  responsibilities,  not 
only  in  its  relations  with  the  public  and  members  of  Con- 
gress, but  also  in  connection  with  the  Laundryowners 
National  Association  membership.  So  that,  as  often  hap- 
pens in  a  pioneering  enterprise,  the  incidental  or  secondary 
purpose  attracted  the  major  efforts,  which  were  productive 
of  the  most  substantial  benefits.  The  work  of  this  committee 


♦Especially  1916  number  L.  N.  A.  Year  Book,  Page  74. 

153 


The  Conservation  of  Textiles 

on  textile  defects  marked  the  beginning  of  the  study  of 
textile  conservation  by  the  Laundryowners  National  Asso- 
ciation. 

When  in  May,  1917,  the  Laundryowners  National 
Association  was  invited  to  send  a  representative  to  partici- 
pate in  the  National  Textile  Conference,  held  under  the 
auspices  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards,  the  files  of  the 
Committee  were  turned  over  to  the  Department  of  Chemical 
Engineering  of  the  L.  N.  A.  Service  Bureau,  the  Director  of 
which  was  appointed  to  represent  the  laundry  industry  in 
the  Textile  Conference.  Since  textile  research  is  essentially, 
though  not  entirely,  of  a  chemical  nature,  to  turn  the  re- 
search work  of  the  Committee  over  to  the  Department  of 
Chemical  Engineering  seemed  to  be  the  logical  procedure. 

The  results  of  the  continuation  of  this  work  are  pre- 
sented in  the  preceding  chapters.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  work  is  finished,  but  w^e  have  in  this  book,  for  the  first 
time,  a  comprehensive  and  usable  presentment  of  the  avail- 
able information  on  the  subject  of  conservation  of  textiles. 
An  assimilation  of  the  information  by  the  personnel  of  the 
industry,  and  from  them  a  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  to  the 
general  public  through  the  medium  of  advertising  and  that 
other  great  medium  of  publicity,  personal  contact,  will  be 
of  inestimable  value  to  the  users  of  textiles,  a  group  as  com- 
prehensive in  extent  as  society  itself.  The  indirect  benefit 
which  will  accrue  to  the  industry  through  the  spread  of  the 
habit  of  the  discriminative  purchasing  and  using  of  fabrics 
cannot  be  over-estimated. 

The  Laundryowner  and  his  employees  must  know 
textiles  in  order  to  properly  perform  the  duties  he  has 
assumed  from  the  public.  He  must  also  know  textiles  in 
order  to  protect  the  industry  from  the  impositions  that 
might  be  placed  by  the  uninformed  or  dishonest  among  the 
users,  manufacturers  and  distributors  of  fabrics.  Many 
ways  in  which  the  information  herein  presented  may  be  used 
to  the  ends  indicated  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  pre- 

154 


Pure  Fabric  Legislation 

ceding  pages.  Others  will  be  suggested  to  the  minds  of  the 
careful  reader.  Books  are  helpful  only  when  they  are 
carefully  read  and  the  information  obtainable  from  them  is 
thoughtfully  applied. 

While  the  Committee  on  Legislation  for  the  Correct 
Labeling  of  Fabrics  has  been  relieved  of  its  research  respon- 
sibilities, it  is  still  alive  to  its  original  primary  purpose. 
The  interests  of  the  public,  the  honest  producer  and  dis- 
tributor of  textiles,  as  well  as  the  interests  of  the  laundry 
industry,  still  demand  legislation  of  some  sort  that  will  pro- 
mote the  use  of  truth  in  selling  fabrics.  Every  laundry- 
owner  in  every  community  can  help  to  bring  this  legisla- 
tion about. 

First,  he  must,  through  his  associations  with  the  re- 
tailers and  the  public,  let  it  be  known  in  a  modest  way 
that  he  possesses  information  on  the  subject  of  textiles; 
that  he  knows  good  textiles  and  how  to  launder  them, 
and  furthermore,  that  he  recognizes  faults  in  fabrics  and 
some  of  the  commonly  practiced  deceptive  tricks.  The 
matter  of  deceptive  practices  in  the  making  and  selling  of 
fabrics  should  not,  however,  be  emphasized  to  the  extent 
of  distracting  attention  from  the  more  common  defects 
in  textiles  which  are  naturally  incident  to  manufacturing 
processes.  The  impression  should  be  conveyed  to  the 
public,  as  well  as  to  representatives  in  Congress  whose  aid 
in  the  furtherance  of  this  matter  is  sought,  that  there  is  no 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  supporters  of  the  proposed 
textile  law  to  restrict  the  market  or  to  hamper  the  honest 
producer  or  dealer.  The  object  of  the  legislation  sought 
is  to  promote  greater  care  in  the  weaving  and  dyeing  of 
fabrics  and  to  protect  the  interest  of  the  honest  producer 
and  dealer  as  well  as  the  consumer  and  launderer  by  re- 
quiring a  label  on  all  textiles  sold  under  interstate  commerce 
regulation  and  that  this  label  must  state  the  truth  and  only 
the  truth. 

155 


The  Couscri'ation  of  Textiles 

The  Textile  Committee  welcomes  this  splendid  book  and 
asks  for  the  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  Laundryowners 
National  Association  which  the  use  of  the  information 
contained  herein  will  unquestionably  facilitate. 

J.  Clair  Stone,  Chairman, 

Committee  on  Legislation  for  the 
Correct  Labeling  of  Fabrics, 
Laundryowners  National  Association. 

Elk  Laundry  Co. 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 


156 


Index 


PAGE 

Abuse  of  fabrics  by  users 149 

Acid  corrosion  of  fabrics 100,  101,  103,  104,  122 

Acid  dyes 92 

Aniline  dves 97 

Animal  fibers 27,  30,  31 

Artificial  and  true  silk,  differentiation  of 26 

Artificial  dyes 91 

Artificial  silk 25 

Artificial  silk,  indentification  of 25 

Artificial  silk,  manufacture  of 25,  26 

Artificial  silk,  physical  characteristics  of 26 

B 

Basic  dyes 93 

Bedford  cords 75 

"Boiled-off"  silk,  structure  of 24,  25 


Cellulose  acetate 25 

Cellulose  hydrate 25 

Chemical  Engineering:,  department  of 7,   154 

Circular  corrosion  of  "fabrics 100,  101,  103,  104,  105,   122 

Claims,  settlement  of 98,     99 

Classification  of  dyes 91 

Classification  of  fibers 15 

Clothing,  history  of 13 

Committee  on  fabric  legislation,  relation  to  the   Department  of 

Chemical  Engineering 154 

Committee  on  legislation  for  pure  fabrics 153,   156 

Committee  on  pure  fabric  legislation,  chairman  of 156 

Committee  on  pure  fabric  legislation,  duties  of 153,   154 

Conservation  of  fabrics 142   to   152 

Conservation  of  fabrics,  by  user 149 

Conservation  of  fabrics,  responsibility  of  laundry 150 

Conservation  of  fabrics,  retail  merchant  in 146 

Corrosion  by  dyes 95,  124,   125 

Corrosion  of  fabrics,  responsibility  of  launderer  for 106-110 

Corrosion  in  fabrics,  responsibility  of  manufacturer  for 123-128 

Corrosion  in  fabrics,  responsibility  of  wearer  for 110,  11 1-120 

Corrosion  of  fabrics 98-128 

Corrosion  of  fabrics  by  acid 100,  101,  103,  104,   122 

Corrosion  of  fabrics  by  stripping  salts 127,   128 

Corrosion  of  fabrics,  circular 100,  101,  103,  104,  105,   122 

Corrosive  materials 98-128 

Corrosive  materials  to  fabrics Ill 

157 


Index — Cont. 

PAGE 

Corrosives  encountered  in  various  professions 118 

Cotton 15-18,  80 

Cotton  fibers 14,  15, '  16 

Cotton,  mercerized 17,  18 

Cotton,  origin  of 15 

Cotton,  schreiner  finish  on 18 

Cotton,  sizing  of 80 

Cuts 82,  84,  85,  87,  88 


Damages 62-75 

Damages,  detection  of  cause  of 102,  104,  106,  122 

Damages  in  Bedford  cords 75 

Damages  in  pile  fabrics 53,  57 

Damage  in  terry  fabrics 53,  57 

Damages,  mechanical 82-89 

Department  of  Chemical  Engineering 7,  154 

Department  of  Chemical  Engineering,  relation  to  Committee  on 

Fabric  Legislation 154 

Detection  of  causes  of  damages 102,  104,  106,  122 

Development  of  power  laundry  industry 7 

Differentation  of  artificial  and  true  silk 26 

Direct  dyes 91 

Duties  of  committee  on  pure  fabric  legislation 153,  154 

Dyes,  acid 92 

Dyes,  aniline 97 

Dyes,  artificial 91 

Dyes,  basic 93 

Dyes,  classification  of 91 

Dyes,  corrosion  by 95,  124,  125 

Dyes,  direct 91 

Dyes,  mordant 95 

Dyes,  natural 91 

Dyes,  relation  to  laundry  industry 90 

Dyes,  salt 93 

Dyes,  sulfur 96 

Dyes,  vat 96 


Fabrics,  abuse,  by  users 149 

Fabrics,  action  of  sunlight  on 9 

Fabrics,  agencies  of  responsibilitiy  in  conservation  of 144 

Fabrics,  circular  corrosion  of 100,  101,  103,  104,  105,   122 

Fabrics,  conservation  of 142-152 

Fabrics,  corrosion  of 98-128 

Fabrics,  corrosion  of,  by  acid. 100,  101,  103,  104,  122 

Fabrics,  corrosion  of,  by  stripping  salts 127,   128 

Fabrics,  damage  in  terry 53,     57 

Fabrics,  damages  in  pile 53,     57 

Fabrics,  finish  of 80 

158 


Index — Cont. 

PAGE 

Fabric,  ideal 38 

Fabric,  legislation  for  pure 153,  154,  155,  156 

Fabrics,  materials  corrosive  to Ill 

Fabrics,  mixed 29 

Fabrics,  paper 76,  77,  79 

Fabrics,  pile 53 

Fabrics,  structure  of  pile 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Fabrics,  structure  of  terry 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Fabrics,  terry 53 

Fabrics,  three-thread  pile 56,  59,  60,  61 

Fabrics,  three-thread  terry 56,  59,  60,  61 

Fabric,  variations  from  the  ideal 39 

Failures  in  textiles,  responsibility  for 8,  9 

Fancy  weaves 36 

Felting  of  wool 22 

Fibers,  animal 27,  30,  31 

Fibers,  classification  of 15 

Fibers,  cotton 14,  15,  16 

Fibers,  effect  of  length 48,  49,  50,  51,  54,  55 

Fibers,  linen 14 

Fibers,  origin  of 13 

Fibers,  preparation  of  linen 18 

Fibers,  silk 22,  23,  24,  25 

Fibers,  vegetable 27,  30,  31 

Fibers,  wool 14 

Finish  of  fabrics 80 

Finish,  schreiner  on  cotton 18 

Flaws  in  weaving 66,  68,  69 

Floats,  advantages  of 36 

Floats,  disadvantages  of 36 

Floats,  long 70,  71 

H 

Heavy  threads 66,  67 

History  of  clothing 13 

I 

Ideal  fabric 38,  39 

Identification  of  artificial  silk 25 

K 

Knots 62,  63,  64,  65 

L 

I.aunderer's  responsibility  for  corrosion  in  fabrics 106-110 

Laundry  industry,  relation  to  dyes 90 

Laundry,  responsibility  for  conservation  of  fabrics 150 

Legislation  for  pure  fabrics 153,  154,  155,  156 

Length  of  fibers,  effect  of 48,  49,  50,  51,  54,  55 

159 


Index — Cont. 

PAGE 

Linen  fibers 14 

Linen,  origin  of 13 

Linen,  preparation  of  fibers 18 

Linen,  sizing  of 80 

Loose  spinning 39,   51,   54,  55 

Linen,  structure  of 19,  21 

Long  floats 70,  71 

"Lustron" 25 

M 

Manufacturer's  responsibility  for  corrosion  in  fabrics 123-128 

Materials  corrosive  to  fabrics Ill 

Mechanical  damages 82-89 

Mercerized  cotton 17,     18 

Mordant  dyes 95 

Mordants 94,     95 

Mordants,  improper  use  of 124^,  125,   126 

N 
Natural  dyes 91 

O 

Overbleaching 123 


Paper  in  fabrics 76,  77,  79 

Perishability  of  textiles 7 

Physical  characteristics  of  artificial  silk 26 

Physical  characteristics  of  wool 22 

Pile  fabrics 53 

Pile  fabrics,  damages  in 53,  57 

Pile  fabrics,  structure  of 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Pile  fabrics,  three-thread 56,  59,  60,  61 

Plain  weave 33,  34 

Power  laundry  industry,  development  of 7 

Professions,  corrosives  encountered  in  various 118 

Pure  fabric  legislation 153,  154,  155,  156 

Pure  fabric  legislation,  duties  of  committee  on 153,  154 

Pure  fabrics,  committee  on  legislation  for 153,  156 

R 

Raw  silk,  structure  of 23,  2^ 

Removal  of  stains,  procedure  chart 13"* 

Research  in  textiles,  importance  of ' 

Research  in  textiles,  incentive  toward ° 

Responsibility  for  conservation  of  fabrics 14^ 

Responsibility  for  failures  in  textiles 8,  9 

Responsibility  of  launderer  for  corrosion  in  fabrics 106-110 

160 


Index — Cont. 

PAGE 

Responsibility  of  laundry  in  conservation  of  fabrics 150 

Responsibility  of  manufacturer  for  corrosion  in  fabrics 123-128 

Responsibility  of  wearer  for  corrosion  in  fabrics 110,  111-120 

Retail  merchant  in  conservation  of  fabrics 146 


s 

Salt  dyes 93 

Satin  weave 35 

Satin  weave,  slipping  of 51,  52 

Schreiner  finish  on  co  ton 18 

"Scratch-up" 74 

Settlement  of  claims 98,  99 

Shrinkage 72,  73 

Silk,  artificial 25 

Silk,  difi"erentation  of  artificial  and  true 26 

Silk  fibers 15,  22,  23,  24 

Silk,  manufacture  of  artificial 25,  26 

Silk,  origin  of 22 

Silk,  preparation  for  spinning 22 

Silk,  structure  of  "boiled-off" 24,  25 

Silk,  structure  of  raw 23,  25 

Silk,  weighting  of 80 

Sizing  of  cotton 80 

Sizing  of  linen 80 

Slipping  of  satin  weave 51,  52 

Snags  in  fabric 82,  83,  86 

Spinning,  early  stages  of 13 

Spinning,  loose 39,  51,  54.  55 

Spinning  of  silk,  preparation  for 22 

Stains,  procedure  chart  for  the  removal  of  (insert) 134 

Stripping  salts,  corrosion  of  fabrics  by 127,  128 

Structure  of  linen 19,  21 

Structure  of  pile  fabrics 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Structure  of  silk,  "boiled-off" 24,  25 

Structure  of  silk,  raw 23,  25 

Structure  of  terry  fabrics 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Structure  of  wool 20,  21 

Sulfur  dyes 96 

Sunlight,  action  on  fabrics 9 

T 

Tensile  strength 80 

Terry  fabrics 53 

Terry  fabrics,  damage  in 53,  57 

Terry  fabrics,  structure  of 53,  56,  58,  59,  60,  61 

Terry  fabrics,  three-thread 56,  59,  60,  61 

Textile  research,  activities  of  the  Department  of  Chemical  En- 
gineering in 7 

Textile  research,  importance  of 7 

Textile  research,  incentive  toward 8 

Textiles,  ideal  in 38 

161 


Index — Cont. 

PAGE 

Textiles,  importance  of  research  in 7 

Textiles,  incentive  toward  research  in 8 

Textiles,  perishability  of 7 

Textiles,  responsibility  for  failures  in 8,  9 

Textiles,  uneven  shrinkage  in 72,  73 

Textiles,  use  of  poor  materials  in 76,  77,  78,  79 

Three-thread  pile   fabrics 56,  59,  60,  61 

Three-thread  Terry  fabrics 56,  59,  60,  61 

U 

Uneven  shrinkage 72,  73 

Users  abuse  of  fabrics 149 


Vat  dyes 96 

Vegetable  fibers 27,  30,  31 

Viscose 25 

W 

Washing  of  wool 22 

Wearer's  responsibility  for  corrosion  in  fabrics .110,  111-120 

Weaves,  fancy 36 

Weaves,  plain 33,  34 

Weaves,  satin 35 

Weaves,  slipping  of  satin 51,  52 

W^eaving,  early  stages  of 13 

Weaving  flaws 66,  68,  69 

Weighting  of  silk 80 

Wool,  comprehensiveness  of  term 21 

W'ool,  early  use  of 14 

Wool,  felting  of 22 

Wool  fibers 14 

Wool,  origin  of 21 

Wool,  physical  characteristics  of 22 

Wool,  structure  of 20,  21 

W^ool,  washing  of 22 


162 


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